Introduction

Extremism, climate change, political polarization – how can societies counter these developments? In the search for answers, the call for citizenship and civic education has been playing an increasing role for several years (Kolleck, 2022). At the same time, it has become clear that citizenship and civic education cannot be generalized and encounter different social traditions and conditions depending on the country and region. This chapter turns to this challenge and asks for the conceptual meaning of citizenship and civic education in CEE. Due to the specific contexts of civic and citizenship education in post-communist states, the countries of CEE are defined less by strict geographical boundaries than by their shared history and societal similarities (for example, regarding dictatorship and social transformation).

The development in CEE is particularly exciting. In the course of the post-communist transformation and the efforts towards Europeanization, the topics of citizenship and civic education gained increasing relevance. At the same time, ambivalences and dilemmas emerged that can be attributed to the specific situation in these countries. Since the end of the Cold War, however, citizenship education and civic education have been promoted not only by the countries themselves but also by the European Union (EU) and the European Council in particular, in order to support processes of democratization and the establishment of a market economy. However, it is apparent that this external promotion of citizenship and civic education, for instance in the European Partnership programme of the EU, led to actions that marginalized important goals inherent in the concepts of citizenship and civic education such as the development of democratic and responsible citizens and the integration of individuals into civil society, which are inherent in the concepts (Segert, 2016).

Introduction

Civic education and civic competencies have been repeatedly emphasized as key features of democratic societies.1 In 2001, the European Commission included active citizenship among four aims of education; a 2006 Recommendation included social and civic competencies as one of the eight key competencies for lifelong learning, recommending their development beginning in preschool through higher education, and a Declaration in 2015 again repeated the importance of education in raising youth as responsible, open, active, and tolerant citizens (European Commission, 2001, 2006; and the 2015 Paris Declaration2). The importance of including civic education courses in compulsory education curricula in order to achieve these aims has been repeatedly demonstrated (Kennedy, 2019). Fostering a democratic culture relies on instilling broader values of ‘democratic commitment, social inclusion, tolerance, and the need for more equitable societies’ (Holle, 2022, p 51) as well as developing skills such as analysis, critical thinking, consideration of alternatives, multi-perspectivity, ability to transcend own options, conflict resolution skills, and applying these concepts in practice (Bergan, 2013).

In Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) specifically, scholars have paid attention to the issue of civic education because of its potential in democratic consolidation and the democratic (re)socialization of citizens (Torney-Purta, 2002; see also Kolleck and Karolewski, Chapter 1, this volume). However, these countries are generally seen as lagging behind other European states in adequate policy responses (EECEA, 2017). To examine these issues, several strands of research have proliferated since the early 2000s.

Introduction

The central focus of political socialization and citizenship education is to form the bedrock of a functioning democracy, primarily taking root during adolescence and shaped by the experiences of youth within their sociopolitical contexts (Eckstein, 2019, p 417). Influences range from vast, intricate phenomena such as the climate crisis, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the war in Ukraine to more intimate socialization within peer groups, families, and schools. The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly curtailed these essential socialization channels, casting a shadow of uncertainty over the future in terms of environmental conservation, education, and economic stability. Notably, climate change and the COVID-19 pandemic rank among the primary concerns of German youth, signalling a significant shift in public opinion on these political issues (Schoen, 2006). These considerations emphasize the need to incorporate the political attitudes of Germany's youth into decision-making processes, bolster citizenship education, and counter the spread of extremist and conspiracy-linked beliefs. Especially in times of crisis, extreme or conspiratorial political positions often offer a seemingly simple solution to the complex challenges of the time and usually spread when people are confronted with surprising and frightening events (van Prooijen and Douglas, 2017). Conspiracy theories often act as catalysts for violence. For instance, right-wing groups in Germany have been at the forefront of promoting extremist and conspiracy theory-fuelled violence, with movements such as the anti-vaccination movement and PEGIDA representing vivid examples (Körner, 2020, p 388)

Introduction

In this volume, we have carried out a multifaceted exploration of citizenship education and citizenship practices in Central and Eastern Europe focusing mainly on insights from Political Science and Education Studies. Our point of departure was the acknowledgement of a significant gap in research on citizenship, which has necessitated a more interdisciplinary discussion of the topic at hand. Each chapter of the volume has contributed a unique perspective, allowing for insights that, taken together, have deepened our understanding of citizenship practices in this dynamic region.

Key themes

Citizenship is not a monolithic concept but rather a multilayered phenomenon, shaped by historical legacies, sociopolitical contexts, and educational systems. The pluralist approach adopted throughout this volume has allowed us to spell out the diversity of citizenship practices – from the conventional to the avant-garde – and has unveiled the interplay between citizenship and democracy. In this context, education emerges as a cornerstone in shaping citizenship practices. The role of formal, non-formal, and informal educational settings in cultivating civic virtues and political engagement has thus been a recurrent theme throughout the volume. By scrutinizing these civic and educational landscapes, we have uncovered the transformative potential of education in fostering active and informed citizenship among the youth – the future generations of citizens. Moreover, our comparative lens has highlighted both convergences and divergences across countries in the region. The impact of historical legacies, societal structures, and geopolitical shifts on citizenship practices has been explored, contributing to a map of citizenship practices in this dynamic region.

Introduction

Democracy in Europe currently faces multiple challenges stemming from strengthened neo-nationalist movements, the democratic deficit of the European Union (EU), and the effects of grand global issues including the changing climate, pandemics, migration, and, most recently, the Russian war within the east of Europe (Cambien et al, 2020). Especially in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), processes of de-Europeanization and de-democratization as well as a strengthening of political authoritarianism have been observed (Szymański, 2017). Citizenship education has been ascribed an important role by policy makers, civil society, and academics alike. Citizenship education can be understood as a concept that encompasses all educational efforts to qualify citizens to responsibly participate in social and democratic life (Solhaug, 2013). It can thus serve as a response to the developments mentioned previously since it has the potential to prepare learners for the challenges of the 21st century by using the indicated issues as learning opportunities and contributing to the development of civic competences (Besand, 2020).

However, the concept and practice of citizenship education is itself the subject of broad discussions and changes, especially in times of crisis (Ben-Porath, 2006). As comparative studies indicate, the way that citizenship education is currently understood and practised across European states is diverging: ‘Given that there is not one type of ideal citizen, there is not a single type of citizenship education either’ (EACEA, 2017, p 20). Thus, it can be seen as a complex matter linking a multitude of actors and levels.

Introduction

Regional conflicts in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), including the Belarusian political crisis in 2020 and the full-scale Russian war in Ukraine in 2022, have exposed the new potential of digital technology use for the engagement of society in all forms of service production, resistance, and mobilization. Against the background of digitalization reforms and increased general digital literacy of the population, the West's support for civic education in the region has contributed to the formation of a new generation of activists familiar with digital tools and platforms and, in general, to the creation of a favourable environment for the development of civic initiatives using digital technologies. This can be seen in the emergence of online platforms and digital tools which facilitate civic engagement and allow a wider audience to participate in the democratic process. For example, online petitions, social media campaigns, and digital activism have become increasingly prevalent, particularly among young people, in Belarus (see Astapova et al, 2022; Titarenko, 2022) and in Ukraine (Diuk, 2012; Bohdanova, 2014). Specifically, as Pospieszna and Galus (2020) note, the evaluation of a long-term civic education programme for young people from post-Soviet countries suggests that training experiences can lead to changes in line with democratic values and practices. Investment in social and human capital by Western donors, particularly in Belarus and Ukraine (Pospieszna and Galus, 2020; Pospieszna et al, 2023), has been of particular importance for fostering a vibrant civil society as a key element in promoting democratic change (see Chapter 2, this volume)

Here, I present a biographical account of my personal journey to become a palaeontologist. In doing so, I show how my colleagues and I generate new knowledge in the field of vertebrate palaeontology. I discuss some of the different ways in which we decipher information about animals that have been dead for millions of years from worlds that have long gone. Thereafter, I hone in on how my work with colleagues in different parts of the world has led to the discovery of new dinosaurs. More specifically, I explain how my research on the microscopic structure of fossil bones of dinosaurs (including early birds) has led to a much better appreciation of their growth dynamics and biology. I also discuss the insights that my research has provided in terms of the evolution of gigantism in non-avian dinosaurs and birds, as well as the impact of disease on the skeletons of extinct animals.

Making law means imagining what the future consequences of what we do today will be and, in accordance with that insight, laying down a coherent set of norms capable of dealing appropriately with our actions when they occur. A core reason for having a legal system is the fact that it provides predictable outcomes to disputes, and for that reason the law should not change too easily. However, since law must reflect the contemporary values of the society in which it operates or becomes moribund, it must also be able to generate novel solutions to remain effective. That requires a careful balancing act between maintaining certainty and seeking novel solutions for an evolving society. This tension between maintaining certainty and creating new knowledge (in the sense of knowledge that the courts take up to change the law) needs several ingredients: original research, a real dispute that needs to be resolved, enterprising counsel to present the research to the court, and a judge who is receptive to the argument made in the research. This contribution seeks to illustrate the process through one example of the intricate dance between certainty, originality, and justice.

The knowledge of dental practice comes from scientific research and also from close engagements with patients in poorer (underserved) communities. Many patients with healthy upper front teeth wanted these extracted, not for health-related reasons, but because, in their terms, it was fashionable. Appearance concerns and acceptance were more important than healthy tooth aesthetics. The personal beliefs and social positionality of patients in underserved communities require dentists to see patients differently, as sources of knowledge that could inform dentistry practice and the promotion of oral health. Dentists and health care professionals are obligated to educate people to realize that access to care is a human right in terms of the constitution of our country. Social and cultural mores often stand in the way within these communities. New knowledge can be generated through the precision gained from the scientific method, but it can be complemented in powerful ways by attending to the knowledge of patients in underserved communities where history, culture, economics, and tradition shaped local responses to dental care in both positive and limiting ways.

This chapter is about discovery in a field that is extremely practical: surgery. When I started working in medicine, I thought my career would be satisfactory and interesting but not creative. It was only later in my life that I discovered the true creativity of a surgical procedure. Surgery is about feeling and touching. It is about tension in the tissue, traction, and countertraction. It is about beautiful sutures that lie back-to-back in the tissue. Perspective 1 is an extract of an article that was published in the journal Transplantation in 2015. It was written after the five-year follow-up results of the HIV-positive to-positive transplants that I pioneered at Groote Schuur Hospital and was published in the New England Journal of Medicine. Perspective 2 describes the hands’ work. What is this discovery – how does it feel? This perspective provides the story of hands in words. Perspective 3 is a sketch. It demonstrates the space in which the hands work. The things the hands do while discovering. Perspective 4 is the conversation that happens while the hands work.

My account mimics my meandering academic career. I address questions that have animated me and continue to animate me. As a psychologist, I am interested in who knows or claims to know what about whom and to what ends. Influenced both by conventional scientific psychology and by psychoanalytic thinking, my work in disability studies with people excluded in many ways, like epistemically, has helped me to think deeply about different kinds of knowledge. This work is embedded in an activist orientation; I try to contribute to social change but am also aware of my knowledge limitations and identity in achieving change. Psychoanalytic thinking helps me think about difficult processes in community work and unpleasant possibilities of my work and that of my colleagues – our investments, for example, being in marginalized fields may, paradoxically, encourage us to resist these fields becoming less so, as we reproduce what we know. I am uncertain about much of what I think and know, but paradoxically again this uncertainty is what makes the work of discovery and the trial and error of social engagement fresh, interesting, and fun. This is a huge privilege.

The philosophical writings of Cicero (1st century BCE) anecdotally provide a frame for reflection of the concept of discovery in the field of the Classics. While in Sicily, Cicero discovers the grave of the famous mathematician and scientist Archimedes (3rd century BCE) in an overgrown area. According to tradition, Archimedes ran excitedly on the streets shouting ‘Eurēka’ (more accurately, ‘Heúrēka’ — ‘I have found [it]’) when reaching an insight while bathing. This gave rise to an oversimplified but tenacious concept of scientific discovery, which Thomas Kuhn and others have been at pains to debunk. The goal of this chapter is to consider the notion of discovery within Greco-Roman studies themselves. Not even in ancient times was ‘discovery’ as the Archimedes story suggests. If classics is a field with many disciplines, analogous in some respects to area studies, rather than a single discipline, one should identify some of the different ‘discovery’ types. From some of the case studies, it emerges that rediscovery is a more appropriate characterization of the dynamics involved. This reflects not a lack of originality but the need to reframe knowledge for ever-changing contexts.

Advances in molecular biology led to the use of molecular methods to identify patterns of genetic variation at the DNA level. This enabled a more robust assessment of the patterns of genetic variation at the individual level that contribute to the study of the genetic affinities of human populations around the world. This paper focuses on how genetic variation among sub-Saharan African populations has contributed to advancing our understanding of population history in Africa and human evolution and discusses ethical issues related to conducting research on human subjects. Using mitochondrial DNA (in both women and men) and Y-chromosome DNA (men only), it is possible to trace an individual’s maternal and paternal lineage ancestry, respectively. Public curiosity about its ancestry sparked interest in genetic ancestry testing services and population genetic research, thus contributing to public participation in science.

I focus on multi-purpose batch chemical plants in industry, complex batch processes in edible oil processing, and pesticide production. Batch chemical processes are characterized by discontinuous operations and the critical role of time. My contributions include development of a graphical water optimization method in batch plants and the state-sequence-network (SSN) approach for scheduling, thereby reducing the complexity of mathematical models used in batch process optimization. The developed method extends to heat integration, leading to a new operational philosophy in batch chemical plants – process intermediate storage. A pivotal moment came when my PhD student, E. R. Seid, discovered a flaw in my mathematical formulation premised on a SSN, which resulted in a more robust framework, and a method to predict the optimal number of time points in scheduling problems. I emphasize the recognition of knowledge gaps, industry collaboration, and an interdisciplinary approach to drive innovation and highlight how conscious awareness of the unknown, the ‘black cat in the dark room’, is crucial for advancing scientific knowledge. Ignorance is at the heart of breakthroughs in science engineering.

The production of knowledge in public health involves a systematic approach that combines imagination, science, and social justice, based on context, rigorous data collection, analysis, and interpretation to improve health outcomes and save lives. Based on a comprehensive understanding of health trends and risk factors in populations, research priorities are established. Rigorous study design and analysis are critical to establish causal relationships, ensuring that robust evidence-based interventions guide beneficial health policies and practice. Communication through peer-reviewed publications, community outreach, and stakeholder engagement ensures that insights are co-owned by potential beneficiaries. Continuous monitoring and feedback loops are vital to adapt strategies based on emerging outcomes. This dynamic process advances public health knowledge and enables effective interventions. The process of addressing a complex challenge of preventing HIV infection in young women in sub-Saharan Africa, a demographic with the least social power but the highest HIV risk, highlights the importance of inclusion in knowledge generation, enabling social change through impactful science.