Introduction

Water is a major natural resource because of its importance in human survival and society. Most importantly, water is both social and economic in scope; this is because it acts as a transport channel, provides irrigation systems for agriculture, and is useful for domestic uses, for instance, in drinking and food preparations. Countries with abundant water resources possess a significant strategic advantage on the global stage. They can leverage this advantage for political gain or economic benefits. Conversely, countries without adequate water resources or facing restrictions on access to water from neighboring nations may experience conflict or become dependent on other countries. A 2022 report from the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program estimates that 411 million Africans, or approximately one-third of the population, still lack access to safe drinking water. The water crisis in Africa, with its geopolitical implications, has contributed to a larger ongoing narrative of internal conflicts between different communities as well as a shaping of the political, economic, and sociocultural contexts in different regions. This chapter aims to usher in a conversation on African rivers and development, which could then inform discussions on hydro diplomacy on the continent. This chapter explores the geopolitical significance of African rivers and examines their role in shaping hydro-political discourse and development in African countries. It aims to analyze how African rivers influence geopolitics and contribute to hydro-political issues, which ultimately impact development.

Geopolitics of Water

Water as a natural resource is one of the most important because we humans cannot do without water, and it can help our society develop. Firstly, water as a natural resource plays both social and economic roles.

Africa's environmental history has received extensive attention from scholars. This scholarly shift sought to remedy the linear trajectory of narrating the African experience. Before its inception, the historiography of Africa was human-centric in focus and thus unbalanced the existing narrative. It is important to note that this same defect was evident, at a point, in other continental histories. However, the second half of the nineteenth century witnessed a tremendous shift in historical perspectives on world history. Primacy was also given, among other things, to the agency of ecological features in history. Environmental history is said to have begun in Europe and America through the writings of the French Annales historians. This school of thought evinced a strong environmental determinism to explain history. However, it took the activities of environmentalists in the 1980s to trigger what we now call environmental history. This explains why earlier works on environmental history were more about environmental conservation. For example, pioneering works by scholars such as Donald Worster, Alfred Crosby, and William Cronon focused on the historical background of conservational issues at that period. Their works demonstrate how environmental events such as population increase, disease environment, modern capitalist economy (industrialization), and the scientific revolution (atomic bombs and pollution) have led to environmental changes in world history. In Samuel Hays’ estimation, the need to address these challenges makes the study of environmental history an attempt to conserve nature. It is instructive to note that African environmental history developed around the same “practical” narratives. Here, the practical approach was usually premised on the impact of colonial exploitation of the African environment.

Epistemology of African Rivers

The history and dynamics of African river systems are an integral component of the life and culture of indigenous African communities from pre-modern times to the present. Africa, a continent endowed with a vast river system, has historically depended on these bodies of water for trade, subsistence, and cultural importance. African rivers, such as the Nile, Congo, and Niger, have variously contributed to the social, economic, and political developments of the communities and nations in which they flow. Rivers are relied upon as a source of water for drinking, irrigation, transportation, et cetera. Despite these various impacts, African rivers face numerous challenges that threaten both human and environmental health, such as pollution, over-extraction, damming, and climate change. As demonstrated copiously in the substantive chapters of this book, the interrelationship between Africa and her rivers manifests great significance in economic, cultural, and sociopolitical dimensions. The trends and future of African rivers show potential in the field and opportunities during debilitating challenges.

As demonstrated in the preceding chapters, there is a need to insert more riverine narratives in the existing literature on African environmental history. The development of riverine histories will balance the existing literature on the environment of Africa. Currently, environmental history in Africa is too land-centric. A mention of environmental history invokes ideas of land, its conservation, and the changing pattern of land use. However, there is more to environmental history than land. Recently, the literature has begun to witness the influx of other environmental features, which include rivers. The development of riverine history in Africa provides a balance in the environmental history of Africa.

Notes by Toyin Falola

Across the previous chapters of this book, we have explored historical and scholarly viewpoints on the rivers of Africa. Our focus has been to explore the multifaceted perspectives about the rivers’ origins, morphology, significance, economic and other benefits, as well as prospects and relevance in development. Beyond scholarly analysis of the significance and impacts of African rivers, we explored the metaphysics of rivers as a concrete reality, particularly as a natural and ecological set of ideas. In addition to the various critical evaluations of pre-existing works of literature on African rivers carried out in the substantial chapters of the book, we have also codified in this Appendix summaries of notes on expeditions undertaken toward select African rivers, particularly the Nile and the Niger. To present a more robust view of the morphology, geology, geography, and other physical features of the river, I shall herein recount my experiences from the expeditions of the rivers in the context of a geographical portfolio of the river as well as the accounts of previous expeditions by some other authors. This narrative provides first-hand primary evidence of the features, uses, and significance of African rivers as explored in the previous chapters.

The Nile

I have been particularly intrigued by the body of living history that the Nile River has over the millennia encompassed. From historical texts to archaeological artifacts, sociological discourses, literature, and arts, the Nile River has been of significant interest to historians and scholars from other fields. In fact, beyond scholarship, the dynamics of the Nile have sparked significant interest in various authors, policymakers, and other interested personalities.

Introduction

Water is an essential natural resource that is crucial for sustaining life and improving human well-being. Water constitutes 70% of the human body and about two-thirds of Earth's surface; hence, it is a vital resource not only for the sustenance of human body systems but also for livelihood and sustainable development of societies. Throughout history, humans have strived to improve their standard of living by enhancing their access to basic needs, mostly food, water, and raw materials. Thus, to make the best use of water resources, human societies since ancient times have endeavored to explore the meaning and significance of rivers and obtain a better understanding of their dynamics and processes. In ancient history, rivers such as Tigris, Euphrates, and Nile have been associated with the emergence of civilizations such as Egypt and Mesopotamia. Notably, rivers have profound spiritual and cultural epistemological value. Not only are they understood from the lens of spiritual and cultural ethos, but rivers are also considered a repertoire of knowledge about spirituality and culture. In this chapter, we shall explore rivers as sources of knowledge. The chapter is divided into three substantive parts: the first section explores the meaning and knowledge of rivers with a particular focus on African Indigenous communities; the second section explores African Indigenous knowledge about the utilization and conservation of rivers; and the third examines the evolving science of hydrological research and its future in Africa.

Introduction

Africa, undoubtedly, remains one of the continents adorned with numerous natural resources, and water is one of the major natural resources that occupies the continent. Like other people in different parts of the world, Africans depend on water for domestic, commercial, agricultural, and ecological purposes. However, these are only the barest uses of water. Research has shown water's social, political, and spiritual significance in African societies – indigenous and modern. The undeniable uses and significance of water resources notwithstanding, there are many problems affecting the effective use and management of water in Africa. Reported observations in the media and literature have pointed out the prevalence of wet and arid areas in Africa and how this affects management. There are also problems of environmental flooding, lack of access to water resources, and degradation, among others. In resolving the challenges associated with access and management of water resources, some scholars have pointed out the need to pay attention to river development. One author postulates that “rivers are most amenable for development and use, whether for human survival or economic advantage.” Meanwhile, studying rivers and their management and development has become essential in modern research because of their relevance in addressing challenges of access and management of water resources.

Rivers constitute an essential component of Africa and culture. As rivers all over the world are a vital component of Earth's hydrological cycle, African rivers shape landscapes, support ecosystems, and sustain human lives on the continent.

Introduction

The interactions of human with other species and the natural environment and their appropriation of natural resources are central to any discourses centering on human history. Drawing from this awareness and understanding, scholars across different fields of academic study have attempted to explore the history and dynamics of human relationship with the natural environment. These studies and scholars particularly paid laser-focused attention to Africa's international rivers and the impacts of changing dynamics in the allocation, use, and management of river resources on the environment and climate. Notably, African rivers serve as conspicuous indicators of the environmental and climatic transformations that are occurring throughout the continent; their modified circulation patterns and reduced strength function as a disconcerting caution. As revealed in this chapter, the diverse and substantial evidence of change in these critical waterways emphasizes the severe repercussions that this has on both ecosystems and human societies. This is evident in changes in river flow regimes, reduction in rivers’ sizes and water compositions, eutrophication of rivers, destruction of aquatic habitats, loss of biodiversity, and climate change. Though the carefree use of river resources without concerns for sustainable development is not the only cause of environmental and climatic change, an understanding of the history and dynamics of allocation, use, management, and conservation of river resources is crucial to a full-picture analysis of Africa's environmental history, and the changing environmental and climatic dynamics on the continent.

According to Beinart, environmental history runs in parallel with trends in African history because it shares many well-established Africanist concerns and perspectives about the environment.

Introduction

Over the last few chapters, we have examined the interrelationship between rivers and development in Africa. In these chapters, we explored how rivers facilitate the transformation of human society through their immense contributions to urbanization, ecotourism, geopolitical development, and environmental and climatic changes. Meanwhile, the focus of this present chapter is on the interrelationship between rivers and industrialization. In this chapter, we seek to explore the role of rivers in the development of the African continent through its contributions to industrialization. Industrialization has been defined as a “socioeconomic process through which a society will change from pre-industrialization into industrialization,” a part of a broad-spectrum modernization process through the development and utilization of modern technologies. From the above definitions, it is evident that the importance of industrialization is premised on how it opens pathways for modernization and development. A thorough analysis of the interaction between industrialization and rivers has revealed that industrialization has a significant impact on river ecosystems, in addition to the important functions that rivers play in it. Because they are sources of hydropower energy, infrastructure for industrial operations, and routes for the transit of goods, rivers are essential to Africa's industrialization. On the other hand, serious environmental risks, including eutrophication, biomagnification, habitat destruction in aquatic environments, modifications to hydrological processes, and even changes in climate, are mostly brought on by fast industrialization. Developing sustainable methods for river use has become essential, considering the need to safeguard the environment while promoting industrial development.

Introduction

Many nations have transformed the financial status of their citizens through constant and effective investment in trade. Given the universal challenge of unequal resource distribution, the exchange of goods and services has become a necessity and a cultural staple in human society, cutting across time, culture, and geography. Sadly, despite the apparent relevance of trade to socioeconomic development and even human survival, Africa continues to lag in both intracontinental and global trade. According to a 2020 report, the share of intra- African trade of total trade across the continent in the period between 1984 and 2016 was only 12% – a relatively low figure compared to the levels seen on other continents. This is particularly striking given Africa's long history of intra-continental trade, which spans several millennia. Throughout much of this history, waterways served as one of the primary means of transportation. Water transportation mode uses canoes, boats, ships, and ferries to transport goods and services from one place to the other. African rivers served as vital conduits for trade and cross-cultural exchange, facilitating trade between various chiefdoms or kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa. With the advent of international trade networks (the trans-Saharan Trade and, later, the Atlantic Trade), rivers became instrumental in connecting the already existing trade networks with the international ones.

While the role of rivers in international trade is the focus of the next chapter of this book, this chapter critically examines their roles in intra- African trade from pre-modern times until the advent of colonialism.

Introduction

The African rivers have a significance that goes beyond physical representation as a body of nature. They also embody the lifeblood of diverse African societies and cultures, which serve as a repository of cultural heritage and pivotal points of human interaction. From the sprawling Nile to the winding channels of the Congo Basin, these waterways have shaped not only the physical landscape but also the cultural identities of the communities spread across and along their banks. This chapter explores the complex relationship between African rivers and culture, looking deeply into their far-reaching influence on and by the societies that depend on them. The cyclic flooding of rivers like the Nile and Niger has nurtured fertile lands, enabling the rise of civilizations such as ancient Egypt and the Mali Empire.

Moreover, they have acted as vital arteries for trade and commerce. An overview of the economic history of Africa shows a pattern of settlements along river bodies. Rivers facilitated intra-trade among African societies as riverine products were exchanged for other commodities.1 This, in turn, has enabled the exchange of ideas and goods. Beyond their practical functions, African rivers hold deep cultural significance and are revered as sacred entities in indigenous belief systems. Rituals and ceremonies paying homage to these waterways reflect a deep reverence for nature and the interconnectedness of all living beings. From ceremonial offerings to communal gatherings, these cultural expressions underscore the intrinsic bond between human societies and their natural environment.

Introduction

With changing socioeconomic and cultural dynamics, environmental structures and settlement patterns have undergone major transformations: they have transformed from naturally rural to urban settings. Notably, Africa is the region with the greatest rate of urbanization and urban growth in contemporary times. African urbanization is propelled by a combination of factors, some of which force its inhabitants out of rural regions while others pull/draw them into cities. On one hand, the lack of basic amenities and the outbreak of environmental issues often force people out of rural cities. On the other hand, the availability or promise of socioeconomic opportunities – such as education, employment, and healthcare – attracts many, particularly young, people to urban areas. From ancient times, international rivers such as the Nile, Niger, and Senegal have contributed to urban development by transforming surrounding riparian zones into trade hubs and by serving as vital routes that connect distant and nearby settlements to these hubs. In contemporary times, the role of rivers in urbanization is observed in its provision of communication and transportation channels for the migration of persons from rural settlements to growing cities. However, there are some evident impacts, mostly negative, which urbanization and urban expansion have had on river systems, their ecology, and the ecosystems of riparian zones. To gain a deeper understanding of the interrelationship between rivers and cities, the discussion in this chapter will incorporate the ecological impacts of urbanization processes on river systems, the socioeconomic dynamics of the rivers–cities relationship, and workable mitigation and management strategies to redress such adverse implications.

Introduction

Religion and spirituality are part and parcel of all cultures of every human society. Religion gives humans and their societies shape and a sense of purpose. Religious culture entails the way of life of a particular people or community in connection with the divine. In Africa, religion and spirituality are important elements of the cultural fabric of the society. Notably, African peoples are notorious for their belief systems. As author John Mbiti once observed:

Whenever the African is, there is religion. He carries it to the fields where he is sowing seeds or harvesting a new crop; he takes it with him to the beer party or to attend a funeral ceremony; and if he is educated, he takes religion with him to the examination room at school or in the university; if he is a politician, he takes it to the house of parliament.

Spirituality in Africa was originally premised on beliefs and traditions associated with African Traditional Religion (ATR). The principles or tenets of African spirituality are essentially the same across various groups, notwithstanding the diversity of religious practices and beliefs connected to various indigenous religious organizations and denominations. African spirituality manifests itself in a variety of ways, including divination, ancestor veneration, nature worship, rites and ceremonies, observance of taboos and holy days, and more. The import of foreign religions – Christianity and Islam – into Africa following the success of Islamic Jihads and Christian proselytization in the region might have altered the prevailing religious dynamics in Africa; however, some of the tenets of African spirituality are still being observed in contemporary times, not only in limited fashion among the ATR-faithful, but also in different manners of expressions amongst African Christians and Muslims.

Introduction

The evolution and development of human history depend heavily on trade and exchange across various cultures and geographical areas. People relied on collecting crops and hunting for animal food sources to provide sustenance during pre-historic times. Subsistence farming was prioritized in the emerging agricultural production era that succeeded the hunting-gathering civilization. A shift in how people met their wants was driven by human demands for a greater range of products and services starting in the pre-modern era. The economic fact that human needs are insatiable and the means of producing them is limited has not only led to the evolution of other economic considerations like the scale of preference and opportunity cost but has also generated the evolution of trade both on the local and international scales. Trade offers individuals, communities, and nations opportunities to procure goods and services that they could not otherwise produce themselves due to a lack of requisite resources. As we have shown in Chapter 6, the scarcity/abundance matrix in pre-colonial African communities occasioned the evolution and development of intra-African trade. With the advent of colonialism and globalization, African communities have engaged in trade and exchange beyond the continent. Just as we have shown rivers to be crucial in intra-continental trade previously, this chapter attempts to assess the dynamics of Africa's historical and contemporary involvement in international trade vis-à-vis the role of rivers and seas as crucial conduits of trade and exchange beyond continental frontiers.

Recently, hydrology has become a significant academic discipline as major environmental, economic, and geopolitical issues point to the crucial role rivers and other water bodies play in development. Emerging global issues such as climate change, food scarcity, and sustainability of aquatic life cannot be effectively addressed without recourse to hydrological processes and the impact of rivers in addressing these issues. Much of the existing literature has focused on recurring themes in hydrological research, including the cultural histories of rivers and their contributions to the political and economic development of specific communities and human civilizations at large. This book expounds on these fundamental issues by delimiting research focus to the African continent while expanding on topical issues.

African rivers – not only major international rivers such as Nile, Congo, and Zambezi, but also local or regional rivers – are vital components of the continent's ecology and culture, playing a crucial role in shaping landscapes, supporting ecosystems, and sustaining human life. Reflecting Africa's geological history, climate variability, and ecological diversity, these rivers hold significant ecological, political, economic, and sociocultural importance. However, their exploitation and sustainability face numerous challenges due to human activities, transboundary conflicts, and climate change. Organized into three sections, each of which explores a major theme related to the study of rivers, this book presents a detailed exposition of the cultural histories of African rivers and their contributions to the transformation of human civilizations in pre-modern history as well as contemporary developments in sociocultural, economic, and political spheres at both national and international levels.

Introduction

Tourism is widely credited in the literature as the largest and most diverse of all industries in the world. Tourism has developed as an integral component of the economy in recent times as scholars, policymakers, and community members continue to consider it as a major means of facilitating economic, cultural, and social developments. According to a 2017 report, tourism accounts for about 8.3% of employment and 1.4% of the world's total gross domestic product (that is, US 9.4 trillion dollars). On its diversity, the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) has highlighted it as one of the fastest-growing industries across the world, having spanned its diversities across different subsectors and areas in the last few decades. For academic purposes, tourism includes nature, culture, sports, religion, health, and adventure. Some authors have strongly suggested that these various forms of tourism can contribute significantly to environmental protection and sustainable development of the economy if various stakeholders – national governments, local communities, private companies, and individuals – collaborate. This chapter discusses how the historicity of riverscapes has become integral to tourism initiatives in various African countries. It examines how African rivers have contributed to economic development within the context of hospitality management. This encompasses the dynamics of ecotourism in Africa, the connections between the continent's international rivers and the evolution of ecotourism, and the potentials, problems, and prospects in harnessing Africa's water resources for ecotourism. The chapter argues that developing ecotourism centered around rivers can promote sustainable economic growth and environmental conservation.

Introduction

The central focus of discussion in this part, Part Two, of the book is the relationship between African rivers and the economies of individual African states, as well as the continent as a whole. African rivers, as argued in the previous chapters, have played a major role in the economic transformation of the contemporary African state. They have facilitated both intra- and interregional trade, boasted agricultural development on the continent by enhancing irrigation systems, and have played a key role in advancing hydropower and developing better transportation network systems across the continent. This chapter is a sequel to the discussion on African rivers’ contributions to economic development by examining with laser focus a specific industry that African rivers have interacted within the continent for centuries – artisanal mining. Artisanal mining is understood as small-scale mining of natural resources. While the size of operations that qualify as artisanal mining varies from country to country, it is generally believed to be the extraction of natural resources by a single person or group of persons (usually fewer than 10) who engage in manual labor with minimal capital investment. Artisanal mining operations are conducted in most parts of Africa without license or other forms of governmental regulation. Despite the challenge with regulation of this sector and the vast implications of its operations on the environment, there are yet some notable socioeconomic impacts it has created for both micro- and macro-economic levels. This chapter addresses the dynamics and implications of artisanal mining operations on African rivers, as well as the potential for these rivers to support the development of this centuries-old industry.