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Chapter 8 investigates the complex relationship between online offensive language and creativity. We demonstrate how creativity extends beyond literary contexts to everyday online interactions. The chapter showcases a vast array of creative tools that are used to cause offence and attests to the fact that while creativity could be enriched by the resources available on various online platforms (e.g., memes and emojis), written language remains central to creative communication. We demonstrate how creative language tools categorised under, for example, tropes, figures of diction and figures of thought, help the offender construct remarks that target sensitive aspects such as appearance, race, gender and personality. We also argue that creative language functions on multiple levels, with its interpretation often requiring a pragmatic layer that extends beyond simple word recognition.
How and why do words cause people to take offence online? This book explores the complex nature of offence, examining how the structure of language – from individual words to broader linguistic patterns – can be employed to construct offensive meanings. It demonstrates that offence is not a universal concept but a subjective experience shaped by the perspective of the target. Through a multi-layered analysis of words, meanings and context, the book offers a deeper understanding of how offence is creatively constructed, conveyed, understood and experienced on social media. By investigating the continuum between explicitly and implicitly offensive language, it reveals how even subtle language choices can have significant consequences. This work serves as a valuable resource for anyone interested in language, communication and the social dynamics of offence. It will appeal to scholars and students in linguistics, communication studies, the social sciences as well as law and computer science.
Building on the logical tradition of possible world semantics, this innovative book explores the rich and diverse empirical domain of modality in language, offering an ambitious theory of linguistic modality as indicative of uncertainty. It covers a wide variety of languages ranging from English, Greek, Italian and French, to Native American and Asian languages, and studies modals alongside evidentials, questions, and imperatives, to enable a deeper understanding of modality. The authors introduce a new analysis of linguistic necessity as conveying evidential bias, identifying new categories such as flexible necessity modals, and offering a framework for the linguistic category of evidentiality as a branch of epistemic modality. They also study the relationship between questions and modals through the concepts of nonveridical equilibrium, reflection, and evidential bias. Laying out the formal semantic tools step-by-step, it is essential reading for both scholars and students of semantics, philosophy, computational linguistics, typology and communication theory.