This chapter describes the basics of scientific figures. It provides tips for identifying different types of figures, such as experimental protocol figures, data figures, and summary figures. There is a description of ways to compare groups and of different types of variables. A short discussion of statistics is included, describing elements such as central tendency, dispersion, uncertainty, outliers, distributions, and statistical tests to assess differences. Following that is a short overview of a few of the more common graph types, such as bar graphs, boxplots, violin plots, and raincloud plots, describing the advantages that each provides. The end of the chapter is an “Understanding Graphs at a Glance” section which gives the reader a step-by-step outline for interpreting many of the graphs commonly used in neuroscience research, applicable independently of the methodology used to collect those data.

This chapter describes methods for analyzing neuroscience questions at the molecular level. The introduction defines the central dogma of molecular biology and the four levels of protein structure. The chapter then describes techniques including in situ hybridization, RNA-sequencing, immunochemistry and some applications such as Western blot and affinity capture, ribbon diagrams, a variety of genetically encoded fluorescent biosensors, and receptor binding assays.

This chapter highlights some of the tools used for imaging features of the nervous system. The introduction defines the concepts of temporal and spatial resolution, the anatomical language used to describe structures in relation to one another, and planes of imaging, all of which are knowledge essential to understanding imaging figures. The chapter then describes both structural and functional imaging techniques and the figures that may accompany these scanning methods, including dissection; CT scans; PET scans; various applications of MRI scanning including arterial spin labeling, functional MRI, and diffusion tensor imaging for tract tracing; SPECT scans; and electroencephalography imaging, including a description of event-related potentials.

This chapter is a discussion of methods used to study the nervous system at the level of cells. The introduction defines and describes the microanatomy of neurons and populations of glia and gives an overview of organelles. Next is a discussion of microscopy techniques and images, including light microscopy (bright-field and fluorescence) and electron microscopy. Other techniques which rely on microscopy are then described, including unbiased stereology, fluorescence recovery after photobleaching, and flow cytometry. The chapter concludes with a description of a variety of stains, dyes, and anterograde and retrograde tracers, as well as an interpretation of Sholl analysis figures and dendritic spine quantification.

This chapter describes the techniques used in electrophysiology and electrochemistry and explains the figures derived from these methods. The introduction describes how neurons can be modeled as electrical circuits and explains different preparations of electrophysiological samples, the common recording configurations, and the equipment used with these techniques. The techniques are divided into a few major categories: passive neuronal properties, action potential analysis, synaptic events including paired pulse ratios and long-term potentiation, current-voltage plots, and electrochemistry techniques such as fast scan cyclic voltammetry and amperometry.

This chapter describes some commonly used nonhuman paradigms for assessing animal behavior and the figures that are used to present those data. The chapter opens with an overview of some animal species used in neuroscience research, a discussion about nonhuman housing, and a description of types of validity that behavioral neuroscientists concern themselves with. The behavioral tests described here are divided into five major categories: motor behaviors; pain; learning and memory; mental disorders such as anxiety, depression, and substance use disorder; and social behaviors. Included is a description of a survival analysis and an explanation of interpreting Kaplan–Meier curves.

This chapter describes the interpretation of figures that show results of meta-analyses. The main types of figure covered include the flow chart or PRISMA diagram for study selection, forest plots of results, and funnel plots used to illustrate any potential publication bias.

Traditionally, brain development was assumed to begin post-birth, detached from sensory experiences. However, recent revelations challenge this notion, demonstrating that infants respond to sensory stimuli before birth. This chapter explores early sensory development in infants, starting in the womb. We investigate the evolution of attention in infants, encompassing its various forms and developmental trajectories. Attention plays a pivotal role in their engagement with the environment. Subsequently, we delve into perceptual learning, highlighting infants innate ability to discern patterns and create expectations. Our focus turns to auditory and visual processing, elucidating how infants perceive and interpret their surroundings. We dissect the neural mechanisms underpinning visual processing, with a special emphasis on face recognition as a model for perceptual learning and adaptability. Finally, we explore multisensory integration in infants, revealing how diverse sensory modalities develop in harmony, shaping their perception of the worlds patterns. This chapter unravels the intricate journey of sensory development in infants, illuminating the bedrock of their perceptual world.

In this chapter, we delve into the intriguing world of memory development, from infancy to adulthood. We begin by emphasizing the fundamental role memory plays in learning. We explore two distinct memory systems: one we are conscious of and another that operates behind the scenes. We examine various memory types, their testing methods, and the brain regions responsible for them. Our focus then shifts to episodic memory, questioning its exclusivity to humans. We dissect the brain structures involved in memory formation and their developmental changes. Additionally, we explore the interconnectedness of memory, thinking processes, and decision-making. Our goal in this chapter is to provide a comprehensive understanding of memory development across different life stages, laying the groundwork for a deeper grasp of this intricate cognitive process.

Self-control is a vital aspect of human development, influencing behavior from early childhood to adulthood. This chapter explores the multifaceted world of self-control, emphasizing its enduring impact on individuals lives. We begin by highlighting the significance of self-control, approach, and avoidance behaviors. The chapter traces the historical evolution of our understanding of how frontal brain regions contribute to emotional and behavioral regulation, drawing from lesion studies and recent research on the prefrontal cortexs role. As children transition to adolescence, their decision-making processes rapidly change. We delve into the developing adolescent brain, shedding light on reward sensitivity and its implications for decision-making, especially in risky and peer-influenced contexts. Adolescence is a pivotal period where various factors, including brain maturation, autonomy, and social environments, shape positive or negative growth trajectories. This chapter unravels the drivers of behavior, neural mechanisms of self-control, and developmental changes, offering valuable insights for public health and policy.

This chapter provides an exploration of brain development, with a strong emphasis on essential learning goals. We start with an infant born at term, where the foundational brain structure is already established, and most neurogenesis is complete by the end of the first postnatal year. However, childhood is a critical phase for brain development, marked by increased energy allocation. Our examination highlights the vital interplay between genes and the environment in shaping the brains trajectory. Neither can independently dictate outcomes; instead, brain development unfolds as a dynamic and adaptable process within genetic boundaries. We commence by introducing fundamental brain anatomy concepts, laying the foundation for a comprehensive understanding of development. Subsequently, we embark on a journey from the first neural cell to the newborn, elucidating the emergence, pathways, and connections of nerve cells. Finally, we summarize postnatal changes, drawing insights from histology and structural MRI, revealing the ongoing marvels of brain growth while remaining focused on our core learning objectives.