Chapter three explores the roots of the modern circus’s dual tendencies towards nationalisation and globalisation, tracing them back to earlier imperial displays. It focuses on the circus’s integration of nineteenth-century ethnographic show practices and presentations of racial and bodily differences. As interwar circuses thrived on these older representations of difference, the chapter highlights the case of the Padaung women, or ‘giraffe-neck women’, from Upper Burma, exhibited at British circuses as a means of imperial and national reaffirmation. Transferring nineteenth-century ethnographic traditions to twentieth-century entertainment, the circus offered a simplified, nationally recognisable portrayal of Southeast Asia, particularly Burma, as imperial others. By analysing visual and textual sources, the chapter illustrates how the circus provided audiences with mirrors reflecting their national concerns around race, empire and gender. Examining photographs of the Padaung women during their circus stint in England reveals a recurring contrast between the English centre and the Burmese periphery of the empire. Additionally, the chapter addresses the construction of authenticity through the circus’s recruitment and presentation of the group, emphasising the unequal power dynamics between producers and performers. Furthermore, the chapter raises questions about the silencing and absence of non-European voices in circus archives, echoing discussions from nineteenth-century ethnographic exhibitions and freak shows. It initiates a dialogue on twentieth-century circus entertainment’s engagement with nineteenth-century othering practices, while also highlighting the complex interplay of race, hierarchy, gender and agency within circus dynamics.

The fifth and final chapter shows how the modern circus navigated the increased influence of state control while also maintaining its international character at the beginning of the Second World War. As a form of wartime entertainment, the circus occupied a tenuous position between being subject to the expectations of authorities and those of audiences, with pleasure and propaganda functioning as interrelated categories. The chapter investigates how the circus was drawn in and resisted these national pulls in Britain and Germany, and the growing sentiments against each other. Through a close reading of 1939 and 1940 circus programmes, the chapter assesses the interplay of controlling and persuading audiences through plays of national propaganda and exotic escapism, which allowed a surprising continuity of international entertainment. On the inside, however, the cracks among the international community of show people were highly visible. Through newspaper clippings, the chapter assesses the underlying anti-German, anti-British and anti-international sentiments within the circus industry in both countries. Whilst circus directors and performers navigated these internal debates and the strains of the war overall, audiences voiced their expectations and disappointments over wartime circus entertainment, which are investigated through newspaper reviews and diaries of circus show attendees.

The concluding chapter summarises the narrative of the book, its significance being the illumination of the complex interplay between the circus, imperialism and national identity, shedding light on a previously overlooked aspect of cultural history. By unpacking the symbolism and narratives woven into the fabric of the circus, it invites readers to reconsider the role of entertainment in shaping societal attitudes and perceptions during a pivotal period in history. By delving into the German and British national narratives that underpinned the circus, it has unearthed the intricate and entangled layers of meaning embedded within its performances and spectacles. Moreover, it briefly examines the post-war trajectory of the circus in both Germany and Britain, offering insights into how this captivating form of entertainment evolved in the aftermath of global conflict. Looking ahead, this conclusion outlines promising avenues for future research at the juncture of popular culture studies and cultural history, suggesting a rich terrain for further exploration into the modern circus.

Chapter 1 makes the case for considering dance in relation to peacebuilding, based on an interrogation of existing research from across a range of fields of study. The chapter explores how growing interest and research in arts-based peacebuilding highlight the importance of utilising multiple pathways in the pursuit of peace. It also examines how, globally, dance and music are recognised as important facilitators of social cohesion and the creation and expression of culture. Recognising these components, the chapter considers theories and practices of dance and peacebuilding, including discussions of embodiment and empathy, among other key relevant concepts; this exploration provides a context for understanding how and where dance and peacebuilding meet. The chapter argues for the recognition of the importance of the role of dance in encouraging diverse forms of communication, in building relationships across difference, and in engaging the participation of diverse actors in local, national and international forums. Finally, the field is outlined by exploring a basic typology of six categories proposed to understand efforts at dance-based peacebuilding (therapeutic; artist-led social change or protest; community-led social change or protest; collective forms; educational; and diplomatic).

Chapter 2 discusses the role of young people in peacebuilding and the ways in which dance plays a part in this process. Previous research has identified the importance and political significance of young people in peacebuilding. Simultaneously, international organisations such as the United Nations have made steps towards increasing the opportunities and support for young people in peacebuilding endeavours, locally and globally, including through the passage of UN Security Council Resolution 2250 on Youth, Peace and Security in 2015. Despite these efforts, and the extent to which youth are immersed in conflict both as recipients of violence and as perpetrators, young people remain on the sidelines of peace initiatives and are not sufficiently recognised and engaged in policy, theory or practice. The research conducted for this book suggests that dance can constitute an effective, inclusive pathway to support youth participation in peacebuilding, especially when incorporating elements of peer leadership. At the same time, the data gathered across the three case studies highlights the importance of including options for peace, reconciliation and social transformation that are age appropriate, gender sensitive, culturally relevant and flexible.

Chapter 4 explores the concept of practising peace though a deep investigation of one set of activities involving the use of mirroring movements. Cultivating empathy has been identified as one crucial element of building peace. As researchers have established, empathy is essential to the restructuring of relationships after violence. Mirroring is a well-established dance activity that is used in many settings and contexts, including theatre, dance therapy, dance education and community dance, and simple variations are included in some mainstream peacebuilding resources as icebreakers. As seen in the three case studies across cultures, peace must be practised, and the process of mirroring provides opportunities for this by inviting interpersonal exchange and the building of kinaesthetic, or felt, empathy, which provides avenues through which to see, understand and feel others across difference. In addition to the potential of empathy within peacebuilding, this chapter discusses the politics of empathy and its challenges in arts-based peacebuilding.

Chapter 3 considers the creation and sharing of ‘hub dances’ – group dance exchange activities – across and between programme sites, to investigate what dance can tell us about local and/or global approaches to peacebuilding, including how the two are defined, interact or may co-constitute one another. It also examines the political ramifications of this co-creation and/or interchange. The hub dances aim to serve as a vehicle for cross-cultural moments of exchange and to provide opportunities for (re)creating identity in multiple ways that can support peacebuilding. At the same time, the use of hub dances also prompts further examination of the different cultural contexts in which conflict occurs and the tensions between the homogenisation of dance ideas paired with individual or group freedoms, and the possibilities of instilling stereotypes or being valued for difference. Likewise, the chapter considers the ways in which the creation, practice, and exchange of hub dances enacts meaning around the identities of self, others and the community, and how this relates to the creation of broader social change for peacebuilding across difference.

To date, practitioner self-care is underexplored in Peace and Conflict Studies, even though peacebuilders themselves could benefit immensely from further investigation in this area, which could in turn strengthen the depth and quality of their work as facilitators for peace. Indeed, the research for this book has suggested that participants had an opportunity to experience themselves in ways that enabled them to express a deeper sense of self-understanding, embodiment and strength to go on with their work. Chapter 5 considers how, in the midst of difficult work in conflict-ridden circumstances, peacebuilders have embraced the opportunities that dance provides to relieve stress and re-engage with their bodies. At the same time, acknowledging that diverse bodies may be placed differently in settings of conflict, the chapter also interrogates the prospects and challenges posed by gender and age norms in particular sites of peacebuilding. It also suggests that dance has broader implications in peacebuilding because it can help enable a more reflective stance for considering conflict. In this sense, it has to potential offer new and creative directions for pursuing peace.

This chapter introduces the book’s main purpose: exploring the relationship between dance and peacebuilding in pluralist societies. It highlights instructive insights dance can provide when reflecting on existing theories and debates around peace and conflict. The research deepens the understanding of the roles the arts, and dance in particular, play in peacebuilding. Building on existing work in International Relations, Peace and Conflict Studies, and Dance, as well as complementary areas of study such as anthropology, neuroscience and law, this chapter sets out how the book considers the work of a non-governmental organisation and its participants deploying dance for youth peacebuilding through case studies across three contexts – Colombia, the Philippines and the United States. These case studies include multiple delivery sites of the dance programme in different contexts of violence or conflict and varied approaches to peace. The introduction previews how investigating the application of a dance-based peacebuilding programme across these three case studies allows us to consider nuance and context, as well as commonalities across the locales.