Balloon observations from Antarctica have proven an effective and efficient way to address open Cosmological questions as well as problems in Galactic astronomy. The Balloon-borne Large Aperture Submillimetre Telescope (BLAST) is a sub-orbital mapping experiment which uses 270 bolometric detectors to image the sky in three wavebands centred at 250, 350 and 500 μm with a 1.8 m telescope. In the years before Herschel launched, BLAST provided data of unprecedented angular and spectral coverage in frequency bands close to the peak of dust emission in star forming regions in our Galaxy, and in galaxies at cosmological distances. More recently, BLASTPol was obtained by reconfiguring the BLAST focal plane as a submillimetric polarimeter to study the role that Galactic magnetic fields have in regulating the processes of star-formation. The first and successful BLASTPol flight from Antarctica in 2010 is followed by a second flight, currently scheduled for the end of 2012.

Expectations of the Gaia astrometry mission regarding the realisation of an optical kinematical reference frame based on extragalactic sources are summarized.

We have performed a uniform analysis of the power spectrum densities (PSDs) of 104 nearby (z<0.4) active galactic nuclei (AGN) using 209 XMM-Newton/pn observations, including several AGN classes. These PSDs span ≃ 3 decades in temporal frequencies, ranging from minutes to days. We have fitted each PSD to two models: (1) a single power-law model and (2) a bending power-law model. A fraction of 72% show significant variability. The PSD of the majority of the variable AGN was well described by a simple power-law with a mean index of α = 2.01±0.01. In 15 sources we found that the bending power law model was preferred with a mean slope of α = 3.08±0.04 and a mean bend frequency of 〈νb〉 ≃ 2 × 10−4 Hz. Only KUG 1031+398 (RE J1034+396) shows evidence for quasi-periodic oscillations. The ‘fundamental plane’ relating variability timescale, black hole mass, and luminosity is demonstrated using the new X-ray timing results presented here together with a compilation of the previously detected timescales from the literature.

The multiple-planet systems discovered by the Kepler mission show an excess of planet pairs with period ratios just wide of exact commensurability for first-order resonances like 2:1 and 3:2. In principle, these planet pairs could be in resonance if their orbital eccentricities are sufficiently small, because the width of first-order resonances diverges in the limit of vanishingly small eccentricity. We consider a widely-held scenario in which pairs of planets were captured into first-order resonances by migration due to planet-disk interactions, and subsequently became detached from the resonances, due to tidal dissipation in the planets. In the context of this scenario, we find a constraint on the ratio of the planet's tidal dissipation function and Love number that implies that some of the Kepler planets are likely solid. However, tides are not strong enough to move many of the planet pairs to the observed separations, suggesting that additional processes are at play.

Cosmis rays are an essential component of the interstellar medium because of their high energy density. This paper reviews the origin of cosmic rays.

We survey HII free-free emission around ∼60 spectroscopically confirmed young stellar objects (YSOs) in the Large Magellanic Cloud using the Australia Telescope Compact Array (ATCA) at 3.3 and 5.5 cm. From each YSOs' infrared spectrum, we: a) quantify how embedded/evolved the YSO is through principle component analysis (PCA) of the silicate absorption (Seale et al. 2009); and b) estimate the mass from SED models (Robitaille et al. 2007). We have four main results: (1) Based on mass estimates from SED models and ATCA detection limits, we find that most massive YSOs are in HII regions regardless of age; (2) Older massive YSOs (as indicated by silicate PCA index) are much more likely to be resolved than younger YSOs, indicating evolving HII regions; (3) Resolved (typically older) sources usually have lower densities. Thus, in our survey we see a transition from ultra-compact HII to HII regions; and (4) We find that accretion about the massive YSO is likely non-spherical, resulting in HII regions in the shape of prolate spheroids.

Extragalactic giant HII regions (EGHRs) are sites of active, concentrated star formation, and thus provide excellent labs to analyze the starburst phenomenon. Although they have been known for a long time, ground-based observations cannot resolve the physical structures and stellar content of EGHRs. The high resolution and sensitivity of Hubble Space Telescope (HST) are ideal for detailed studies of EGHRs. We have searched the Hubble Legacy Archives (HLA) and found 17 nearby galaxies, within ∼15 Mpc, with Hα and continuum images; to determine the best methods for analyzing these data, we perform an in-depth analysis of the EGHRs in M51. M51 is a face-on spiral galaxy ∼8.4 Mpc away, with well-resolved multi-wavelength observations in the HLA. We sample the 25 most luminous HII regions in M51, many of which are bonafide EGHRs with an H-alpha luminosity > 1039 ergs s−1. We use the Hα image to study the distribution and physical structure of the gas in each HII region and determine its Hα luminosity and required ionizing flux. We use the continuum images to determine whether super stellar clusters (SSCs) are found in these HII regions, and use photometric measurements to determine the mass and age spread of the resolved stellar population. These are then compared with the interstellar structures. The results help us provide the groundwork for studying EGHRs in multiple galaxies and elucidate the starburst phenomenon by investigating questions such as: What role does environment play in the formation of EGHRs? How do EGHRs evolve? How does star formation proceed in an EGHR?

Cyclotron resonance scattering features (CRSF) are the direct observational evidence for the strongly magnetized neutron stars. Since the first detection of the absorption line in the X-ray source Her X-1 thirty years ago, more than ten sources are indentified as the strongly magnetized neutron stars through detecting CRSFs. INTEGRAL is the new X-ray/gamma-ray mission with good angular resolution, high sensitivity and spectral resolution in the range of 18 C 200 keV, so that it provides us a good chance to detect the CRSFs in neutron star systems. INTEGRAL has confirmed the line features in 5 previous known sources and discovered 4 new candidates. Physical mechanism of CRSFs and accretion physics can be probed with detailed spectral analysis.

Recent observational evidence suggests the existence of two tracks in the radio-X-ray relation for X-ray binaries. Claims have also been made for deviations from the so-called fundamental plane of black hole activity due to the influence of radiative cooling on synchrotron emission from jets and the relative importance of disk and jet emission. In addition, cases of strongly boosted classes of objects, such as BL Lacs, show evidence for jet emission in their location relative to the fundamental plane. In light of the recent literature activity discussing these issues, we revisit the scaling relations expected for synchrotron emission from jet cores. We review the set of scaling laws expected for different types of emission and discuss their relevance to the new observational data, and the conditions under which breaks in the observed scaling relations should be expected. None of the canonical cases offer a satisfactory explanation for the best fit slope of the steep branch of the radio-X-ray relation in hard-state X-ray binaries.

Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) are believed to be thermonuclear explosions of carbon-oxygen white dwarfs at a mass close to the Chandrasekhar limit. However, a white dwarf at birth has a significantly lower mass and needs to accrete mass to grow to the limit for the explosion. Various progenitor models have been proposed and those models play an important role in our understanding of SNe Ia and cosmology.

The mathematical concept of the Newtonian limit of Einstein's equations in an expanding universe is formulated. The equations of motion of planets and light are compared.

Young galaxies viewed at high redshift have high turbulent velocities, high star formation rates, high gas fractions, and chaotic structures, suggesting wild instabilities during which giant gas clumps form and make stars in their dense regions, stir other disk stars and gas, and transport angular momentum outward with a resulting net mass flow inward (e.g., Ceverino et al.2010). At z=1.5, 40% of star-forming galaxies have significant clumps (Elmegreen et al.2007; Wuyts et al.2012), and in these, 10%-20% of the stellar mass is in clumps that last ~150 Myr (Elmegreen et al.2009; Wuyts et al.2012). The thick disk and bulge in modern galaxies could form in this phase. The similarity in the α/Fe ratio (Meléndez et al.2008), K-giant abundances (Bensby et al.2010) and ages for the Milky Way bulge and thick disk suggest they formed at the same time. High dispersion gas at z ~ 1.5 can do this because it makes the young disk thick and the SF clumps big enough to drive fast secular evolution (Elmegreen et al.2006; Genzel et al.2008; Bournaud et al.2009). Local analogues might be present in dynamically young galaxies like BCDs (Elmegreen et al.2012). The high fraction of z ~ 1.5 galaxies with massive clumps suggests clump formation is a long-lived phase and that clump torques should last ~ 1 Gyr or more even if individual clumps come and go on shorter timescales. Clump formation may cease when stars finally dominate the disk mass (Cacciato et al. 2012).

The neutron superfluid permeating the inner crust of mature neutron stars is expected to play a key role in various astrophysical phenomena like pulsar glitches. Despite the absence of viscous drag, the neutron superfluid can still be coupled to the solid crust due to non-dissipative entrainment effects. Entrainment challenges the interpretation of pulsar glitches and suggests that a revision of the interpretation of other observed neutron-star phenomena might be necessary.

All stars are born in molecular clouds, and most in giant molecular clouds (GMCs), which thus set the star formation activity of galaxies. We first review their observed properties, including measures of mass surface density, Σ, and thus mass, M. We discuss cloud dynamics, concluding most GMCs are gravitationally bound. Star formation is highly clustered within GMCs, but overall is very inefficient. We compare properties of star-forming clumps with those of young stellar clusters (YSCs). The high central densities of YSCs may result via dynamical evolution of already-formed stars during and after star cluster formation. We discuss theoretical models of GMC evolution, especially addressing how turbulence is maintained, and emphasizing the importance of GMC collisions. We describe how feedback limits total star formation efficiency, ε, in clumps. A turbulent and clumpy medium allows higher ε, permitting formation of bound clusters even when escape speeds are less than the ionized gas sound speed.

Previous comet flyby missions enabled detailed studies of the photometric properties of several cometary nuclei from disk-resolved images, including 9P/Tempel 1, 19P/Borrelly, and 81P/Wild 2. Two recent missions, DIXI and Stardust-NExT, encountered Comets 103P/Hartley 2 and Tempel 1 respectively, expanding the pool of sampled cometary nuclei in their unique ways: Hartley 2 is a hyperactive comet; Tempel 1 was visited and impacted by the Deep Impact dual-spacecraft during its previous perihelion passage. Photometric modeling shows that the global photometric properties of the nuclei of Hartley 2 and Tempel 1 are similar to those of other cometary nuclei. The photometric variation of the hyperactive nucleus of Hartley 2 is about 15%, similar to that of weakly active comets Tempel 1 and Wild 2. The photometric properties of Tempel 1 measured by NExT suggest little change from those measured by DI. These results, together with the photometric properties of Wild 2 and Borrelly, indicate that the photometric properties of cometary nuclei are independent of the activity level and gross geomorphology of cometary nuclei. Instead, cometary nucleus photometric properties might be determined by its outgassing, which leaves low-albedo deposit on the surface and forms similar photometric texture. The time scale for the photometric alteration on cometary nuclei due to outgassing should be much shorter than the dynamic time scale.

We study the correlations between low frequency (LF) and kHz quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs) for 20 neutron star X-ray bianaries (NSXBs). We find that both upper and lower kHz QPOs correlate with the LF QPOs. However, the correlations show 5 parallel branches in the kHz QPO frequency vs. LF QPO frequency relation diagram. We notice that the source will jump from one parallel branch to another when different harmonic frequency of the LF QPO is used to plot the correlation between kHz and LF QPOs. We infer that the parallel branches maybe due to the multi-harmonic QPOs in the NSXBs.

Standards of Fundamental Astronomy (SOFA) is an International Astronomical Union (IAU) service that provides accessible and authoritative algorithms and procedures that implement standard models used in fundamental astronomy. This paper summaries the current status, noting the changes during 2009-2012, and discusses issues that may arise in the future.

The Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) belong to the most important small bodies in the solar system, having the capability of close approaches to the Earth and even possibility to collide with the Earth. In fact, it is impossible to calculate reliable orbit of an object from a single night observations. Therefore it is necessary to extend astrometry dataset by early follow-up astrometry. Follow-up observations of the newly discovered NEO candidate should be done over an arc of several hours after the discovery and should be repeated over several following nights. The basic service used for planning of the follow-up observations is the NEO Confirmation Page (NEOCP) maintained by the Minor Planet Center of the IAU. This service provides on-line tool for calculating geocentric and topocentic ephemerides and sky-plane uncertainty maps of these objects at the specific date and time. Uncertainty map is one of the most important information used for planning of follow-up observation strategy for given time, indicating also the estimated distance of the newly discovered object and including possibility of the impact. Moreover, observatories dealing with NEO follow-up regularly have prepared their special tools and systems for follow-up work. The system and strategy for the NEO follow-up observation used at the Klet Observatory are described here. Methods and techniques used at the Klet NEO follow-up CCD astrometric programme, using 1.06-m and 0.57-m telescopes, are also discussed.

Massive galaxies harbor a supermassive black hole at their centers. At high redshifts, these galaxies experienced a very active quasar phase, when, as their black holes grew by accretion, they produced enormous amounts of energy. At the present epoch, these black holes still undergo occasional outbursts, although the mode of their energy release is primarily mechanical rather than radiative. The energy from these outbursts can reheat the cooling gas in the galaxy cores and maintain the red and dead nature of the early-type galaxies. These outbursts also can have dramatic effects on the galaxy-scale hot coronae found in the more massive galaxies. We describe research in three areas related to the hot gas around galaxies and their supermassive black holes. First we present examples of galaxies with AGN outbursts that have been studied in detail. Second, we show that X-ray emitting low-luminosity AGN are present in 80% of the galaxies studied. Third, we discuss the first examples of extensive hot gas and dark matter halos in optically faint galaxies.