Element contents
Series: Elements in Ethics
Moral Relativism and Pluralism
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 06 January 2023
Summary
The argument for metaethical relativism, the view that there is no single true or most justified morality, is that it is part of the best explanation of the most difficult moral disagreements. The argument for this view features a comparison between traditions that highly value relationship and community and traditions that highly value personal autonomy of the individual and rights. It is held that moralities are best understood as emerging from human culture in response to the need to promote and regulate interpersonal cooperation and internal motivational coherence in the individual. The argument ends in the conclusion that there is a bounded plurality of true and most justified moralities that accomplish these functions. The normative implications of this form of metaethical relativism are explored, with specific focus on female genital cutting and abortion.
Information
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Series: Elements in EthicsOnline ISBN: 9781009043496Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 02 February 2023
References
Abdulcadir, Jasmine, Botsikas, Diamides, Bolmont, Mylène et al. (2016). “Sexual Anatomy and Function in Women with and without Genital Mutilation: A Cross-Sectional Study,” The Journal of Sexual Medicine 13(2), 226–237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adams, David Wallace (1995). Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.Google Scholar
Ahmadu, Fuambai S. (2001). “Rites and Wrongs: An Insider/Outsider Reflects on Power and Excision,” in Shell-Duncan, Bettina and Herlund, Yiva (eds.), Female “Circumcision” in Africa: Culture, Controversy, and Change, 283–312. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ahmadu, Fuambai S., and Shweder, Richard A. (2009). “Disputing the Myth of the Sexual Dysfunction of Circumcised Women: An Interview with Fuambai S. Ahmadu by Richard A. Shweder,” Anthropology Today 25(6), 14–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Appiah, Kwame Anthony (2006). Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers. New York: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Aristotle (2016). Aristotle’s Politics: Writings from the Complete Works – Politics, Economics, Constitution of Athens, ed. Barnes, Jonathan, trans. Jowett, Benjamin, 1–225. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Ayars, Alisabeth, and Nichols, Shaun (2020). “Rational Learners and Metaethics: Universalism, Relativism, and Evidence from Consensus,” Mind & Language 35, 67–89.Google Scholar
Berlin, Isaiah (2002). “Two Concepts of Liberty,” in Hardy, H. (ed.), Liberty: Incorporating Four Essays on Liberty. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 167–215.Google Scholar
Bloomfield, Paul (2009). “Review of Natural Moralities: A Defense of Pluralistic Relativism,” Mind, 118(469), 225–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boddy, Janice (2007). Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Boddy, Janice (2016). “The Normal and the Aberrant in Female Genital Cutting: Shifting Paradigms,” HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory 6(2), 41–69.Google Scholar
Boddy, Janice (2020). “Re-thinking the Zero Tolerance Approach to FGM/C: The Debate Around Female Genital Cosmetic Surgery,” Current Sexual Health Reports 12(4), 302–313.Google Scholar
Brink, David (1989). Moral Realism and the Foundation of Ethics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bruce, Tricia C. (2020). “How Americans Understand Abortion: A Comprehensive Interview Study of Abortion Attitudes in the US,” McGrath Institute for Church Life, University of Notre Dame, https://tinyurl.com/2xtjfz7j, accessed November 27, 2022.Google Scholar
Catania, Lucrezia, Abdulcadir, Omar, Puppo, Vincenzo et al. (2007). “Pleasure and Orgasm in Women with Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C),” The Journal of Sexual Medicine 4(6), 1666–1678.Google Scholar
Chan, Sin Yee (2000). “Gender and Relationship Roles in the Analects and the Mencius,” Asian Philosophy 10(2), 115–131.Google Scholar
Christensen, David (2007). “Epistemology of Disagreement: The Good News,” Philosophical Review 116(2), 187–217.Google Scholar
Coulthard, Glen Sean (2014). Red Skin, White Masks: Rejecting the Colonial Politics of Recognition. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Cowan, Sarah K., Bruce, Tricia C., Perry, Brea L. et al. (2022). “Discordant Benevolence: How and Why People Help Others in the Face of Conflicting Values,” Science Advances 8, 1–16.Google Scholar
Cua, Antonio S. (1989). “The Status of Principles in Confucian Ethics,” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 16(3–4), 273–296.Google Scholar
Curry, Oliver Scott, Mullins, Daniel Scott, and Whitehouse, Harvey (2019). “Is It Good to Cooperate? Testing the Theory of Morality-as-Cooperation in 60 Societies,” Current Anthropology 60(1), 47–69.Google Scholar
de Waal, Frans B. M. (2008). “Putting the Altruism back into Altruism,” Annual Review of Psychology 59(1), 279–300.Google Scholar
Duivenbode, Rosie, and Padela, Aasim I. (2019). “The Problem of Female Genital Cutting: Bridging Secular and Islamic Bioethical Perspectives,” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 62(2), 273–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dworkin, Ronald (1977). Taking Rights Seriously. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Earp, Brian D. (2016). “Between Moral Relativism and Moral Hypocrisy: Reframing the Debate on ‘FGM,’” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 26(2), 105–144.Google Scholar
Earp, Brian D. (2022). “Against Legalising Female ‘Circumcision’ of Minors: A Reply to ‘The Prosecution of Dawoodi Bohra Women’ by Richard Shweder,” Global Discourse 12(1), 47–76.Google Scholar
Earp, Brian D., and Johnsdotter, Sara (2021). “Current Critiques of the WHO Policy on Female Genital Mutilation,” International Journal of Impotence Research 33(2), 196–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Earp, Brian D., McLoughlin, Killian L., Monrad, Joshua T., Clark, Marsha S., and Crockett, Molly J. (2021). “How Social Relationships Shape Moral Wrongness Judgments,” Nature Communications 12(1), 1–3.Google Scholar
Farrell, David M., Suiter, Jane, and Harris, Clodagh (2019). “Systematizing Constitutional Deliberation: The 2016–18 Citizens’ Assembly in Ireland,” Irish Political Studies 34(1), 113–123.Google Scholar
Fishkin, James (2009). When the People Speak: Deliberative Democracy and Public Consultation. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Flack, Jessica C., and de Waal, Frans B. M. (2000). “Any Animal Whatever,” Journal of Consciousness Studies 7(1–2), 1–29.Google Scholar
Fricker, Miranda (2007). Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Galbraith, Kate, and Price, Asher (2013). The Great Texas Wind Rush: How George Bush, Ann Richards, and a Bunch of Tinkerers Helped the Oil and Gas State Win the Race to Wind Power. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Gessen, Masha (2019). “What Happens When a Group of Strangers Spends a Day Debating Immigation?” The New Yorker, July 23, https://tinyurl.com/2p94wm2w, accessed November 27, 2022.Google Scholar
Gibbard, Allan (1992). Wise Choices, Apt Feelings: A Theory of Normative Judgment. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gil, Michael B. (2009). “Indeterminacy and Variability in Meta-Ethics,” Philosophical Studies 145(2), 215–234.Google Scholar
Gillespie, Valerie (2020). “Let’s Embrace Duke’s Entire History,” Duke Magazine, summer issue, https://tinyurl.com/stedvp9m, accessed November 27, 2022.Google Scholar
Gilligan, Carol (1982). In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gintis, Herbert (2000). Game Theory Evolving. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Goodwin, Geoffrey P., and Darley, John M. (2008). “The Psychology of Meta-Ethics: Exploring Objectivism,” Cognition 106, 1339–1366.Google Scholar
Gowans, Christopher (2007). Review of Natural Moralities: A Defense of Pluralistic Relativism, Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews, April 14, https://tinyurl.com/5tzrc28h, accessed November 27, 2022.Google Scholar
Greene, Jamal (2021). How Rights Went Wrong: Why Our Obsession with Rights Is Tearing America Apart. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.Google Scholar
Gruenbaum, Ellen (2001). Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Gruenbaum, Ellen, Earp, Bryan D., and Shweder, Richard A. (2022). “Reconsidering the Role of Patriarchy in Upholding Female Genital Modifications,” International Journal of Impotence Research, 1–10. www.nature.com/articles/s41443-022-00581-5, accessed November 27, 2022.Google Scholar
Hall, David L., and Ames, Roger T. (1987). Thinking Through Confucius. Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Hamilton, William (1964). “The Genetical Evolution of Social Behavior,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 7, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanson, Eric, Gamez, Daniel P., and Manuel, Alexa (2020). “The Residential School System,” First Nations and Indigenous Studies UBC, https://tinyurl.com/4y989byn, accessed November 27, 2022.Google Scholar
Harman, Gilbert (1975). “Moral Relativism Defended,” Philosophical Review 84(1), 3–22.Google Scholar
Harman, Gilbert (2000). Explaining Value, and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Held, Virginia (2006). The Ethics of Care: Personal, Political, and Global, 2nd edition. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Martin L. (2000). Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hollander, Michael and Sandelweiss, Martha A. (2022). “Princeton and Slavery: Holding the Center,” Princeton Alumni Weekly, November 8, 2017, accessed online on June 19, 2022, https://paw.princeton.edu/issues/v118-n04-11082107.Google Scholar
Hourdequin, Marion (2021). “Environmental Ethics: The State of the Question,” Southern Journal of Philosophy 59(3), 270–308.Google Scholar
Hourdequin, Marion and Wong, David B. (2005). “A Relational Approach to Environmental Ehics,” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 32(1), 19–33.Google Scholar
Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer (2011). Mothers and Others: The Evolutionary Origins of Mutual Understanding. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Kittay, Eva (1999). Love’s Labor: Essays on Women, Equality, and Dependency. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Kölbel, M. (2003) “Faultless Disagreement,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, New Series, 104(1), 53–73.Google Scholar
Kratz, Corinne A. (2002). “Circumcision Debates and Asylum Cases: Intersecting Arenas, Contested Values, and Tangled Webs,” in Shweder, Richard A., Minow, Martha, and Markus, Hazel Rose (eds.), Engaging Cultural Differences: The Multicultural Challenge in Liberal Democracies, 309–343. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Landemore, Hélène (2020). Open Democracy: Reinventing Popular Rule for the Twenty-First Century. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
LeDoux, Joseph E. (2002). Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are. New York: Viking.Google Scholar
Leonard, Lori (2000). “Interpreting Female Genital Cutting: Moving Beyond the Impasse,” Annual Review of Sex Research 11(1), 158–190.Google Scholar
Li, Chenyang (1994). “The Confucian Concept of Jen and the Feminist Ethics of Care: A Comparative Study,” Hypatia, 9(1), 70–89.Google Scholar
Lyons, Harriet D. (2007). “Genital Cutting: The Past and Present of a Polythetic Category,” Africa Today 53(4), 3–17.Google Scholar
MacFarlane, J. (2007). “Relativism and Disagreement,” Philosophical Studies 132, 17–31.Google Scholar
MacIntyre, Alasdair (1988). Whose Justice? Which Rationality? South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar
MacIntyre, Alasdair (2007). After Virtue, 3rd edition. South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar
Mandela, Nelson (2006). “The Ubuntu Experience,” an interview of Nelson Mandela by Tim Modise, November 1, 2006. www.youtube.com/watch?v=ODQ4WiDsEBQ.Google Scholar
Markus, Hazel, and Kitayama, Shinobu (1991). “Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation,” Psychological Review 98(2), 224–253.Google Scholar
McGrath, Sara (2010). “Moral Realism without Convergence,” Philosophical Topics 38(2), 59–90.Google Scholar
McKay, Susan (2019). “A Jury of Peers: How Ireland Used a Citizen’s Assembly to Solve Some of Its Toughest Problems,” Foreign Policy 231, 5–7.Google Scholar
Mencius (Mengzi 2006–21). Chinese Text Project, https://ctext.org/mengzi, accessed November 23, 2022.Google Scholar
Metz, Thaddeus (2011). “Ubuntu as a Moral Theory and Human Rights in South Africa,” African Human Rights Law Journal 11(2), 532–559.Google Scholar
Millett, Paul (2007). “Aristotle and Slavery in Athens,” Greece & Rome 54(2), 178–209.Google Scholar
Möeller, Kai (2012). “Proportionality: Challenging the Critics,” International Journal of Constitutional Law 10(3), 709–731.Google Scholar
Moody-Adams, Michele (1997). Fieldwork in Familiar Places: Morality, Culture, & Philosophy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Morel, Mary Kay (1997). “Captain Pratt’s School,” American History 32(2), 26–32, 62–64.Google Scholar
Murdock, Esme (2020). “Troubling Ecological Citizenship: Expanding Our Minds and Hearts to See the More-Than-Human World as Our Relations,” Minding Nature 13(2), 36–41.Google Scholar
Murdock, Esme (2022). “Indigenous Governance Now: Settler Colonial Injustice Is Not Historically Past,” Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy 25(3), 411–426.Google Scholar
Njambi, Wairimũ Ngaruiya (2004). “Dualisms and Female Bodies in Representations of African Female Circumcision: A Feminist Critique,” Feminist Theory 5(3), 281–303.Google Scholar
Njambi, Wairimũ Ngaruiya (2011). “Irua Ria Atumia and Anticolonial Struggles among the Gĩkũyũ of Kenya: A Counternarrative on ‘Female Genital Mutilation,’” in Oyĕwùmí, Oyèrónkẹ́ (ed.), Gender Epistemologies in Africa: Gendering Traditions, Spaces, Social Institutions, and Identities, 179–197. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Noddings, Nel (1984). Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Nussbaum, Martha (2001). Upheavals of Thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Oba, Abdulmumini A. (2008). “Female Circumcision as Female Genital Mutilation: Human Rights or Cultural Imperialism?” Global Jurist 8(3). doi: 10.2202/1934-2640.1286/htmlGoogle Scholar
Okasha, Samir (2020). “Biological Altruism,” in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2020 Edition), https://stanford.io/3U5gOEQ, accessed November 23, 2022.Google Scholar
Olinder, Ragnar Francén (2012). “Moral and Metaethical Pluralism: Unity in Variation,” The Southern Journal of Philosophy 50(4), 583–601.Google Scholar
Ostrom, Carol M. 1996. “Harborview Debates Issue of Circumcision of Muslim Girls.” The Seattle Times, September 13, 1996, www.bit.ly/3id1AAq, accessed November 27, 2022.Google Scholar
Pande, Raksha (2021). “Young British Indians Are Embracing Marriage – Just Not in the Traditional Sense,” April 29, 2021, The Conversation, www.bit.ly/3ARqex4, accessed November 27, 2022.Google Scholar
Park, John J. (2022). The Psychological Basis of Moral Judgments: Philosophical and Empirical Approaches to Moral Relativism. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Prinz, Jesse J. (2007). The Emotional Construction of Morals Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Public Policy Advisory Network on Female Genital Surgeries in Africa. (2012). “Seven Things to Know about Female Genital Surgeries in Africa,” Hastings Center Report 42(6), 19–27.Google Scholar
Quinn, Naomi (2005). “Universals of Child Rearing,” Anthropological Theory 5, 477–516.Google Scholar
Morgentaler, R. v. (1988). https://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/288/index.do, accessed July 23, 2022.Google Scholar
Rakove, Jack (2009). The Annotated US Constitution and Declaration of Independence. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Railton, Peter (1989). “ Railton, “Naturalism and Prescriptivity,” Social Philosophy and Policy 7, 151–174.Google Scholar
Richardson, Heather Cox (2020). How the South Won the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Richardson, James D. (2004). A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents Section 1 (of 2) of Volume 3: Andrew Jackson (Second Term). Project Gutenberg EBook. http://gutenberg.readingroo.ms/1/1/2/0/11202/11202.txt.Google Scholar
Richerson, Peter J., and Boyd, Robert (2005). Not By Genes Alone. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Richerson, Peter J., Boyd, Robert, and Henrich, Joseph (2003). “Cultural Evolution of Human Cooperation,” in Hammerstein, P. (ed.), Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation: A Dahlem Conference Workshop. Cambridge: MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Rosenlee, Li-Hsiang Lisa (2014). “Why Care? A Feminist Re-appropriation of Confucian Xiao,” in Olberding, A. (ed.), Dao Companion to the Analects, 311–334. Dordrecht: Springer.Google Scholar
Rovane, Carol (2013). The Metaphysics and Ethics of Relativism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Ruddick, Sara (1989). “Maternal Thinking,” in Trebilcot, A. (ed.), Mothering: Essays in Feminist Theory, 213–230. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld.Google Scholar
Sandel, Michael (1998). Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 2nd edition. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sarkissian, Hagop (2017). “Folk Platitudes as the Explananda of Philosophical Metaethics: Are They Accurate? And Do They Help or Hinder Inquiry?” Journal of the Indian Council of Philosophical Research 34, 565–575.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scanlon, Thomas M. (1998). What We Owe to Each Other. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Shafer-Landau, Russ (1994). “Ethical Disagreement, Ethical Objectivism, and Moral Indeterminacy,” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 54(2), 331–344.Google Scholar
Shafer-Landau, Russ (1995). “Vagueness, Borderline Cases and Moral Realism,” American Philosophical Quarterly 32(1), 83–96.Google Scholar
Shafer-Landau, Russ (2003). Moral Realism: A Defense. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Shell-Duncan, Bettina, and Hernlund, Ylva (2000). “Female ‘Circumcision’ in Africa: Dimensions of the Practice and Debates,” in Shell-Duncan, Bettina and Herlund, Ylva (eds.), Female “Circumcision” in Africa: Culture, Controversy, and Change, 1–40. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar
Shweder, Richard A. (2003). “What about Female Genital Mutilation?,” in Why Do Men Barbecue? Recipes for Cultural Psychology, 168–216. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Shweder, Richard A. (2022). “The Prosecution of Dawoodi Bohra Women: Some Reasonable Doubts,” Global Discourse 12(1), 9–27.Google Scholar
Sober, Elliot, and Wilson, David S. (1998). Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Sophocles (1984). The Three Theban Plays: Antigone; Oedipus the King; Oedipus at Colonus, trans. Robert Fagles. New York: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Srvluga, Susan (2015). “Former Ole Miss Student Sentenced to Six Months for Putting Noose Around Statue.” Washington Post, September 17, 2015, www.bit.ly/3VfaVGG, accessed November 27, 2022.Google Scholar
Street, Sharon (2006). “A Darwinian Dilemma for Realist Theories of Value,” Philosophical Studies 127, 109–166.Google Scholar
Students at Central European University’s School of Public Policy (2018). Tend It Like a Garden: A Podcast on the Irish Citizens’ Assembly. www.bit.ly/3u4nskb, accessed November 27, 2022.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri (1970). “Experiments in Intergroup Discrimination,” Scientific American 223, 96–102.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri Billig, M. G. Bundy, R. P., and Flament, Claude (1971). “Social Categorization and Intergroup Behaviour,” European Journal of Social Psychology 1, 149–178.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri, and Turner, J. (1979). “An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict,” in Austin, W. G. and Worchel, S. (eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, 33–47. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.Google Scholar
Taylor, Charles (1985). Philosophy and the Human Sciences: Philosophical Papers 2. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, Charles (1989). Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Thomas, Lynn M. (1996). “‘Ngaitana (I Will Circumcise Myself)’: The Gender and Generational Politics of the 1956 Ban on Clitoridectomy in Meru, Kenya,” Gender and History 8(3), 338–363.Google Scholar
Tomasello, Michael (2019). Becoming Human: A Theory of Ontogeny. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Triandis, Harry C. (1995). Individualism and Collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Trivers, Robert (1971). “The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism,” Quarterly Review of Biology 46(1), 35–57.Google Scholar
Tronto, Joan (1993). Moral Boundaries: A Political Argument for an Ethic of Care. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Velleman, David (2013). Foundations for Moral Relativism. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers.Google Scholar
Walker, Margaret Urban (2007). Moral Understandings: A Feminist Study in Ethics, 2nd edition. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Whyte, Kyle P. (2018). “What Do Indigenous Knowledges Do for Indigenous Peoples?” in Nelson, Melissa K. and Shilling, Dan (eds.), Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 57–81. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Williams, Bernard (1981). “The Truth in Relativism,” in Moral Luck, 132–143. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wong, David B. (1984). Moral Relativity. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Wong, David B. (2006). Natural Moralities: A Defense of Pluralistic Relativism. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wong, David B. (2011). “Relativist Explanations of Interpersonal and Group Disagreement,” in Hales, Steven D. (ed.), A Companion to Relativism, 411–430. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Wong, David B. (2014). “David Wong’s Responses to Critics,” in Xiao, Yang and Hong, Yong (eds.), Moral Relativism and Chinese Philosophy, 181–274. Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Wong, David B. (2015a). “Early Confucian Philosophy and the Development of Compassion,” Dao 14(2), 157–194.Google Scholar
Wong, David B. (2015b). “Growing Virtue: The Theory and Science of Developing Compassion from a Mencian Perspective,” in Bruya, Brian (ed.), The Philosophical Challenge from China, 23–56. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Wong, David B. (2019a). “Relativism and Pluralism in Moral Epistemology,” in Zimmerman, Aaron, Jones, Karen, Timmons, Mark (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Moral Epistemology, 316–328. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Wong, David B. (2019b). “Morality, Definition of,” in LaFollette, Hugh (ed.), International Encyclopedia of Ethics, 4488–4499. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Organization, World Health (2008). “Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation: An Interagency Statement,” www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/eliminating_fgm.pdf, accessed July 19, 2022.Google Scholar
Review, World Population (2022) “Abortion Laws by State 2022,” https://tinyurl.com/4mmpnzyw, accessed November 27, 2022.Google Scholar
Wright, Jennifer C., Grandjean, Piper T., and McWhite, Cullen B. (2013). “The Meta-ethical Grounding of Our Moral Beliefs: Evidence for Meta-ethical Pluralism,” Philosophical Psychology 26(3), 336–361.Google Scholar
Xiao Jing (Classic of Filial Piety) (2006–21). Chinese Text Project. https://ctext.org/xiao-jing, accessed November 23, 2022.Google Scholar
Xunzi (2006–21). Chinese Text Project. https://ctext.org/xunzi, accessed November 23, 2022.Google Scholar
Yoder, P. Stanley, Wang, Shanxiao, and Johansen, Elise (2013). “Estimates of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in 27 African Countries and Yemen,” Studies in Family Planning 44(2), 189–204.Google Scholar
Accessibility standard: Unknown
Why this information is here
This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.Accessibility Information
Accessibility compliance for the HTML of this element is currently unknown
and may be updated in the future.
- 21
- Cited by