Element contents
Series: Elements in Ethics
Natural Law Theory
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 20 August 2021
Summary
In Section 1, I outline the history of natural law theory, covering Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics and Aquinas. In Section 2, I explore two alternative traditions of natural law, and explain why these constitute rivals to the Aristotelian tradition. In Section 3, I go on to elaborate a via negativa along which natural law norms can be discovered. On this basis, I unpack what I call three 'experiments in being', each of which illustrates the cogency of this method. In Section 4, I investigate and rebut two seminal challenges to natural law methodology, namely, the fact/value distinction in metaethics and Darwinian evolutionary biology. In Section 5, I then outline and criticise the 'new' natural law theory, which is an attempt to revise natural law thought in light of the two challenges above. I conclude, in Section 6, with a summary and some reflections on the prospects for natural law theory.
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Series: Elements in EthicsOnline ISBN: 9781108580793Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 16 September 2021
References
Alford, C. F. (2010). Narrative, Nature, and the Natural Law: From Aquinas to International Human Rights. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Andersen, S. (2001). ‘Theological Ethics, Moral Philosophy, and Natural Law’, Ethical Theory and Moral Practice 4 (December), 349–64. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013318824823.Google Scholar
Anderson, O. (2005). ‘Is Contemporary Natural Law Theory a Beneficial Development? The Attempt to Study Natural Law and the Human Good without Metaphysics’, New Blackfriars 86 (1005), 478–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0028-4289.2005.00102.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angier, T. (2019). ‘Two Dogmas of (Modern) Aristotle Scholarship’, Dialogoi: Ancient Philosophy Today 1 (2), 237–55. https://doi.org/10.3366/anph.2019.0017.Google Scholar
Aquinas (2006). Summa Theologiae, trans. Fathers of the English Dominican Province. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Complete English edition]Google Scholar
Aristotle (1984). The Complete Words of Aristotle, ed. Jonathan Barnes. Princeton: Princeton University Press. [Revised Oxford translation]Google Scholar
Ayala, F. J. (1970). ‘Teleological Explanations in Evolutionary Biology’, Philosophy of Science 37 (1): 1–15.Google Scholar
Barney, R. (2006). ‘The Sophistic Movement’. In Gill, M. L. and Pellegrin, P., eds, A Companion to Ancient Philosophy. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 77–97.Google Scholar
Bedau, M. (1992). ‘Where’s the Good in Teleology?’ Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 52 (4), 781–806. https://doi.org/10.2307/2107911.Google Scholar
Boyd, R. (1999). ‘Homeostasis, Species, and Higher Taxa’. In Wilson, Robert, ed., Species: New Interdisciplinary Essays. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 141–85.Google Scholar
Braithwaite, R. B. (1946). ‘Teleological Explanation’, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society (New Series) 47, i–xx.Google Scholar
Brüllmann, P. (2019). ‘The Stoics’. In Angier, T., ed., The Cambridge Companion to Natural Law Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 11–30.Google Scholar
Caro, T. M. (1986). ‘The Functions of Stotting in Thomson’s Gazelles: Some Tests of the Predictions’, Animal Behaviour 34 (3), 663–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-3472(86)80052-5.Google Scholar
Chappell, S. G. (2017). ‘The Objectivity of Ordinary Life’, Ethical Theory and Moral Practice 20 (4), 709–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10677-017-9793-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicero (1998). The Republic and The Laws, trans. N. Rudd. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, G. A. (1989). ‘On the Currency of Egalitarian Justice’, Ethics 99 (4), 906–44. https://doi.org/10.1086/293126.Google Scholar
Crisp, R. (2013). ‘Finnis on Well-Being’. In Keown, J. and George, R. P., eds, Reason, Morality, and Law: The Philosophy of John Finnis. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 24–36.Google Scholar
Crowe, M. B. (1977). The Changing Profile of the Natural Law. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuneo, T. (2007). The Normative Web: An Argument for Moral Realism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Depew, D. J. (2008). ‘Consequence Etiology and Biological Teleology in Aristotle and Darwin’, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 39 (4), 379–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2008.09.001.Google ScholarPubMed
De Queiroz, K. (1999). ‘The General Lineage Concept of Species and the Defining Properties of the Species Category’. In Wilson, Robert, ed., Species: New Interdisciplinary Essays. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 49–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deslauriers, M. (2003). ‘Aristotle on the Virtues of Slaves and Women’, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 25 (Winter), 213–31.Google Scholar
Devitt, M. (2008). ‘Resurrecting Biological Essentialism’, Philosophy of Science 75 (3), 344–82. https://doi.org/10.1086/593566.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Di Blasi, F. (2006). God and the Natural Law: A Rereading of Thomas Aquinas. South Bend, IN: St Augustine’s Press.Google Scholar
Donnelly, B. (2006). ‘The Epistemic Connection between Nature and Value in New and Traditional Natural Law Theory’, Law and Philosophy 25 (1), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s 10982-004-5055-2 29.Google Scholar
Dubois, J. M. (2006). ‘How Much Guidance Can a Secular, Natural Law Ethic Offer? A Study of Basic Human Goods in Ethical Decision-Making’. In Cherry, M. J., ed., The Death of Metaphysics; The Death of Culture: Epistemology, Metaphysics and Morality. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 185–97.Google Scholar
Dupré, J. (1999). ‘On the Impossibility of a Monistic Account of Species’. In Wilson, Robert (ed.), Species: New Interdisciplinary Essays. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 3–22.Google Scholar
Emon, A. (2019). ‘Natural Law in Islam’. In Angier, T., ed., The Cambridge Companion to Natural Law Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 179–96.Google Scholar
Feser, E. (2014). Scholastic Metaphysics: A Contemporary Introduction. Heusenstamm: Editiones Scholasticae.Google Scholar
Feser, E. (2015). ‘Teleology: A Shopper’s Guide’. In E. Feser, Neo-Scholastic Essays. South Bend, IN: St Augustine’s Press, pp. 28–48.Google Scholar
Feser, E. (2019a). ‘Natural Law Ethics and the Revival of Aristotelian Metaphysics’. In Angier, T., ed., The Cambridge Companion to Natural Law Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 276–96.Google Scholar
Feser, E. (2019b). Aristotle’s Revenge: The Metaphysical Foundations of Physical and Biological Science. Heusenstamm: Editiones Scholasticae.Google Scholar
Finnis, J. (1981). ‘Natural Law and the “Is”-“Ought” Question: An Invitation to Professor Veatch’, Catholic Lawyer 26 (4), 266–77.Google Scholar
Finnis, J. (1983). Fundamentals of Ethics. Washington, DC: University of Georgetown Press.Google Scholar
Finnis, J. (1987). ‘Natural Inclinations and Natural Rights: Deriving “Ought” from “Is” According to Aquinas’. In Elders, L. and K. Hedwig, eds, Lex et Libertas: Freedom and Law according to St. Thomas Aquinas, vol. 30. Rome: Studi Tomistici.Google Scholar
Finnis, J. (1998). Aquinas: Moral, Political, and Legal Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finnis, J. ([1980] 2011). Natural Law and Natural Rights, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Finnis, J., Grisez, G. and Boyle, J. (1987). ‘Practical Principles, Moral Truth, and Ultimate Ends’, The American Journal of Jurisprudence 32 (1), 99–151.Google Scholar
Frankena, W. K. (1939). ‘The Naturalistic Fallacy’, Mind (New Series), 48 (192), 464–77.Google Scholar
George, R. P. (1988). ‘Recent Criticism of Natural Law Theory’, University of Chicago Law Review 55 (4), 1371–429.Google Scholar
Gilson, E. (1984). From Aristotle to Darwin and Back Again: A Journey in Final Causality, Species, and Evolution. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar
Gómez-Lobo, A. (2002). Morality and the Human Goods: An Introduction to Natural Law Ethics. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Goyette, J., Latkovic, M. S. and Myers, R. S. (2004). St. Thomas Aquinas and the Natural Law Tradition: Contemporary Perspectives. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press.Google Scholar
Griffiths, P. (2002). ‘What Is Innateness?’, Monist 85 (1), 70–85. https://doi.org/10.5840/monist20028518.Google Scholar
Grisez, G. (1965). ‘The First Principle of Practical Reason: A Commentary on the Summa Theologiae, 1–2, Question 94, Article 2’, The American Journal of Jurisprudence 10 (1), 168–201.Google Scholar
Grisez, G. (1978). ‘Against Consequentialism’, The American Journal of Jurisprudence 23 (1), 21–72.Google Scholar
Guthrie, W. K. C. (1981). History of Philosophy, Vol. 6: Aristotle: An Encounter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Haakonssen, K. (2008). ‘Natural Law without Metaphysics: A Protestant Tradition’. In González, A. M., ed., Contemporary Perspectives on Natural Law: Natural Law As a Limiting Concept. London: Ashgate Publishing, pp. 67–86.Google Scholar
Haldane, J. (2013). ‘Reasoning About the Human Good, and the Role of the Public Philosopher’. In Keown, J. and George, R. P., eds, Reason, Morality, and Law: The Philosophy of John Finnis. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 37–55.Google Scholar
Harvey, W. ([1616] 1928). Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus, trans. C. Depew Leake. Baltimore, MD: Charles C. Thomas.Google Scholar
Hawthorne, J. and Nolan, D. (2006). ‘What Would Teleological Causation Be?’ In Hawthorne, J., Metaphysical Essays. Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 265–84.Google Scholar
Heath, M. (2008). ‘Aristotle on Natural Slavery’, Phronesis 53 (3), 243–70. https://doi.org/10.1163/156852808X307070.Google Scholar
Hegel, G. W. F. (1977). The Phenomenology of Spirit, trans. A. V. Miller. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hittinger, R. (1987). A Critique of the New Natural Law Theory. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar
Hume, D. (1998). An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hüntelmann, R. (2016). Grundkurs Philosophie, Vol. 6: Natürliche Ethik. Heusenstamm: Editiones Scholasticae.Google Scholar
Inwood, B. and Gerson, L. P. (1997). Hellenistic Philosophy: Introductory Readings. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing.Google Scholar
Inwood, B. and Gerson, L. P. (2008). The Stoics Reader: Selected Writings and Testimonia. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing.Google Scholar
Jensen, S. J. (2015). Knowing the Natural Law: From Precepts and Inclinations to Deriving Oughts. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press.Google Scholar
Jensen, S. J. (2019). ‘Aquinas’. In Angier, T., ed., The Cambridge Companion to Natural Law Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 31–50.Google Scholar
Kelsen, H. (1960). ‘Plato and the Doctrine of Natural Law’, Vanderbilt Law Review 14 (1), 23–64.Google Scholar
Kitcher, P. (1984). ‘Species’, Philosophy of Science 51 (2), 308–333. https://doi.org/10.1086/289182.Google Scholar
Klein, J. (2012). ‘Stoic Eudaimonism and the Natural Law Tradition’. In Jacobs, J. A., ed., Reason, Religion, and Natural Law: From Plato to Spinoza. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 57–80.Google Scholar
Lee, P. (2009). ‘Human Nature and Moral Goodness’. In Cherry, M. J., ed., The Normativity of the Natural: Human Goods, Human Virtues, and Human Flourishing. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 45–54.Google Scholar
Lee, P. (2019). ‘The New Natural Law Theory’. In Angier, T., ed., The Cambridge Companion to Natural Law Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 173–91.Google Scholar
Leiter, B. (2002). Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Nietzsche on Morality. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Lennox, J. G. (1993). ‘Darwin Was a Teleologist’, Biology and Philosophy 8 (4), 409–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00857687.Google Scholar
Leunissen, M. (2017). From Natural Character to Moral Virtue in Aristotle. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Levering, M. (2008). Biblical Natural Law: A Theocentric and Teleological Approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lewens, T. (2004). Organisms and Artifacts: Design in Nature and Elsewhere. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Lisska, A. J. (1996). Aquinas’s Theory of Natural Law: An Analytic Reconstruction. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Long, A. A. and Sedley, D. N. (1987). The Hellenistic Philosophers, vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
MacIntyre, A. C. (2000). ‘Theories of Natural Law in the Cultures of Advanced Modernity’. In McLean, E. B., ed., Common Truths: New Perspectives on Natural Law. Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, pp. 91–115.Google Scholar
Mackie, J. L. (1977). Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Manent, P. (2018). La loi naturelle et les droits de l’homme. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.Google Scholar
Maritain, J. (2001). Natural Law: Reflections on Theory and Practice. South Bend, IN: St Augustine’s Press.Google Scholar
Marsh, S. and Pancevski, B. (2009). The Crimes of Josef Fritzl: Uncovering the Truth. London: HarperElement.Google Scholar
Martin, C. (2004). ‘The Fact/Value Distinction’. In Chappell, T. and Oderberg, D. S., eds, Human Values: New Essays on Ethics and Natural Law. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 52–69.Google Scholar
Martin, C. (2008). ‘The Relativity of Goodness: A Prolegomenon to a Rapprochement between Virtue Ethics and Natural Law Theory’. In González, A. M., ed., Contemporary Perspectives on Natural Law: Natural Law As a Limiting Concept. London: Ashgate Publishing, pp. 187–200.Google Scholar
Mayr, E. (1992). ‘Species Concepts and Their Application’. In Ereshefsky, M., ed., The Units of Evolution: Essays on the Nature of Species. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 15–25.Google Scholar
McInerny, R. M. (1982). Ethica Thomistica: The Moral Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press.Google Scholar
Mirus, C. (2004). ‘The Metaphysical Roots of Aristotle’s Teleology’, The Review of Metaphysics 57 (4), 699–724. https://doi.org/revmetaph200457443.Google Scholar
Mirus, C. (2012). ‘Aristotle on Beauty and Goodness in Nature’, International Philosophical Quarterly 52 (1), 79–97. https://doi.org/10.5840/ipq20125216.Google Scholar
Murphy, M. C. (2001). Natural Law and Practical Rationality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Nagel, T. (2012). Mind and Cosmos: Why the Materialist Neo-Darwinian Conception of Nature Is Almost Certainly False. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Novak, D. (2014). Natural Law: A Jewish, Christian, and Islamic Trialogue. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nuccetelli, S. and Seay, G. (2012). Ethical Naturalism: Current Debates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Oderberg, D. S. (2000). Moral Theory: A Non-Consequentialist Approach. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.Google Scholar
Oderberg, D. S. (2004). ‘The Structure and Content of the Good’. In Chappell, T. and Oderberg, D. S., eds, Human Values: New Essays on Ethics and Natural Law. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 127–65.Google Scholar
Oderberg, D. S. (2008). ‘Teleology: Organic and Inorganic’. In González, A. M., ed., Contemporary Perspectives on Natural Law: Natural Law As a Limiting Concept. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, pp. 259–80.Google Scholar
Oderberg, D. S. (2010). ‘The Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Law’. In Zaborowski, H., ed., Natural Moral Law in Contemporary Society. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, pp. 44–75.Google Scholar
Oderberg, D. S. (2013). ‘Natural Law and Rights Theory’. In Gaus, G. F. and d’Agostino, F., eds, The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 375–86.Google Scholar
Okasha, S. (2002). ‘Darwinian Metaphysics: Species and the Question of Essentialism’, Synthèse 131, 191–213. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015731831011.Google Scholar
O’Rourke, F. (2004). ‘Aristotle and the Metaphysics of Evolution’. The Review of Metaphysics 58 (1), 3–59. https://doi.org/revmetaph200458181.Google Scholar
Pakaluk, M. (2013). ‘Is the New Natural Law Thomistic?’ The National Catholic Bioethics Quarterly 13 (1), 57–67. https://doi.org/10.5840/ncbq201313170.Google Scholar
Plato (1997). Complete Works, ed. Cooper, J. M. and Hutchinson, D. S.. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing.Google Scholar
Porter, J. (1999). Natural and Divine Law: Reclaiming the Tradition for Christian Ethics. Grand Rapids, MI: W. B. Eerdmans Publishing.Google Scholar
Porter, J. (2005). Nature As Reason: A Thomistic Theory of the Natural Law. Grand Rapids, MI: W. B. Eerdmans Publishing.Google Scholar
Porter, J. (2009). ‘Does the Natural Law Provide a Universally Valid Morality?’. In Cunningham, L. S., ed., Intractable Disputes about the Natural Law: Alasdair MacIntyre and His Critics. Notre Dame, IN: University of Press, Notre Dame, pp. 53–95.Google Scholar
Putnam, H. (2002). The Collapse of the Fact/Value Dichotomy and Other Essays. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Putnam, H. (2017). ‘The Fact/Value Dichotomy and the Future of Philosophy’. In Marchetti, G. and Marchetti, S., eds, Facts and Values:The Ethics and Metaphysics of Normativity. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 27–41.Google Scholar
Rapp, C. (2016). ‘“Der Staat existiert von Natur aus”: Über eine befremdliche These im ersten Buch der Aristotelischen Politik’. In Höfele, A. and Kellner, B., eds, Menschennatur und Politische Ordnung. Paderborn: Wilhelm Fink, pp. 45–78.Google Scholar
Rommen, H. A. (1998). The Natural Law: A Study in Legal and Social History and Philosophy. Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, A. (1985). The Structure of Biological Science. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rowland, T. (2019). ‘Natural Law in Catholic Christianity’. In Angier, T., ed., The Cambridge Companion to Natural Law Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 135–54.Google Scholar
Rudavsky, T. (2019). ‘Natural Law in Judaism’. In Angier, T., ed., The Cambridge Companion to Natural Law Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 113–34.Google Scholar
Seagrave, S. A. (2009). ‘Cicero, Aquinas, and Contemporary Issues in Natural Law Theory’, The Review of Metaphysics 62 (3), 491–523. https://doi.org/revmetaph20096231.Google Scholar
Searle, J. R. (1964). ‘How to Derive “Ought” From “Is”’, The Philosophical Review 73 (1), 43–58.Google Scholar
Seipel, P. (2015). ‘Aquinas and the Natural Law: A Derivationist Reading of ST I-II, Q. 94, A. 2’, Journal of Religious Ethics 43 (1), 28–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/jore.12085.Google Scholar
Simon, Y. R. (1965). The Tradition of Natural Law: A Philosopher’s Reflections. New York: Fordham University Press.Google Scholar
Simpson, P. P. (2001). Vices, Virtues, and Consequences: Essays in Moral and Political Philosophy. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press.Google Scholar
Sober, E. (1992). ‘Evolution, Population Thinking and Essentialism’, Philosophy of Science 47, 350–83. Reprinted in Ereshefsky, M., ed., The Units of Evolution: Essays on the Nature of Species. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 247–78.Google Scholar
Solinas, M. (2015). From Aristotle’s Teleology to Darwin’s Genealogy: The Stamp of Inutility. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Sophocles (1954). Sophocles I: Oedipus the King; Oedipus at Colonus; Antigone. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Spaemann, R. (2008). ‘The Unrelinquishability of Teleology’. In González, A. M., ed., Contemporary Perspectives on Natural Law: Natural Law As a Limiting Concept. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, pp. 281–96.Google Scholar
Tollefsen, C. (2018). ‘Aquinas’s Four Orders, Normativity, and Human Nature’, The Journal of Value Inquiry 52 (3), 243–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10790-018-9657-6.Google Scholar
Toner, C. (2008). ‘Sorts of Naturalism: Requirements for a Successful Theory’, Metaphilosophy 39 (2), 220–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9973.2008.00538.x.Google Scholar
Vavova, K. (2015). ‘Evolutionary Debunking of Moral Realism’, Philosophy Compass 10 (2), 104–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/phc3.12194.Google Scholar
Veatch, H. B. (1966). ‘Non-Cognitivism in Ethics: A Modest Proposal for its Diagnosis and Cure’, Ethics 76 (2), 102–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Veatch, H. B. (2003). Rational Man: A Modern Interpretation of Aristotelian Ethics. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press.Google Scholar
Wild, J. (1953). Plato’s Modern Enemies and the Theory of Natural Law. Chicago: Chicago University Press.Google Scholar
Wildes, K. W. (2006). ‘Whose Nature? Natural Law in a Pluralistic World’. In Cherry, M. J., ed., The Death of Metaphysics; The Death of Culture: Epistemology, Metaphysics and Morality. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 31–40.Google Scholar
Williams, B. A. O. (1995). ‘Evolution, Ethics, and the Representation Problem’. In Williams, B. A. O., Making Sense of Humanity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 100–10.Google Scholar
Williams, B. A. O. (2003). ‘Plato’s Construction of Intrinsic Goodness’. In Sharples, R. W., ed., Perspectives on Greek Philosophy: S. V. Keeling Memorial Lectures in Ancient Philosophy 1991–2002. Ashgate Keeling Series in Ancient Philosophy. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, pp. 1–18.Google Scholar
Wolff, J. (2015). ‘Social Equality and Social Inequality’. In Fourie, C., Schuppert, F. and Wallimann-Helmer, I., eds, Social Equality: On What It Means to Be Equals. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 209–25.Google Scholar