Hostname: page-component-5db6c4db9b-v64r6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2023-03-25T20:12:10.962Z Has data issue: true Feature Flags: { "useRatesEcommerce": false } hasContentIssue true
  • English

Genetic Variation in Political Participation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 May 2008

JAMES H. FOWLER ,
LAURA A. BAKER  and
CHRISTOPHER T. DAWES
JAMES H. FOWLER*
Affiliation:
University of California, San Diego
LAURA A. BAKER*
Affiliation:
University of Southern California
CHRISTOPHER T. DAWES*
Affiliation:
University of California, San Diego
*
James H. Fowler is Professor, Political Science Department, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive 0521, La Jolla, CA 92093-0521. (jhfowler@ucsd.edu or by Web at http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu.)
Laura A. Baker is Professor, Psychology Department, University of Southern California, 3620 South McClintock Ave., Los Angeles, CA 90089-1061.
Christopher T. Dawes is Professor, Political Science Department, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive 0521, La Jolla, CA 92093-0521.
Get access Rights & Permissions[Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The decision to vote has puzzled scholars for decades. Theoretical models predict little or no variation in participation in large population elections and empirical models have typically accounted for only a relatively small portion of individual-level variance in turnout behavior. However, these models have not considered the hypothesis that part of the variation in voting behavior can be attributed to genetic effects. Matching public voter turnout records in Los Angeles to a twin registry, we study the heritability of political behavior in monozygotic and dizygotic twins. The results show that a significant proportion of the variation in voting turnout can be accounted for by genes. We also replicate these results with data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health and show that they extend to a broad class of acts of political participation. These are the first findings to suggest that humans exhibit genetic variation in their tendency to participate in political activities.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Political Science Review , Volume 102 , Issue 2 , May 2008 , pp. 233 - 248
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abrahamson, Amy C., Baker, Laura A., and Caspi, Avshalom. 2002. “Rebellious teens? Genetic and environmental influences on the social attitudes of adolescents.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83: 1392–1408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aldrich, John H. 1993. “Rational Choice and Turnout.” American Journal of Political Science 37 (1): 246–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alford, J. R., Funk, C. L., and Hibbing, J. R.. 2005. “Are Political Orientations Genetically Transmitted?” American Political Science Review 99 (2): 153–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ansolabehere, S., Iyengar, S., Simon, A., and Valentino, N.. 1994. “Does Attack Advertising Demobilize the Electorate.” American Political Science Review 88 (4): 829–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, Laura A., Barton, Mafalda, Raine, Adrian, and James, H. Fowler. 2006. “The Southern California Twin Register at the University of Southern California: Ii.” Twin Research and Human Genetics 9 (6): 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bendor, J., Diermeier, D., and Ting, M.. 2003. “A Behavioral Model of Turnout.” American Political Science Review 97 (2): 261–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blais, A., and Young, R.. 1999. “Why Do People Vote? An Experiment in Rationality.” Public Choice 99 (1–2): 39–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boehm, Christopher. 1999. Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Bouchard, T. J. 1998. “Genetic and Environmental Influences on Adult Intelligence and Special Mental Abilities.” Human Biology 70 (2): 257–79.Google ScholarPubMed
Bouchard, T. J., and McGue, M.. 2003. “Genetic and Environmental Influences on Human Psychological Differences.” Journal of Neurobiology 54 (1): 4–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brady, D., Verba, S., and Schlozman, K. L.. 1995. “Beyond Ses: A Resource Model of Political Participation.” American Political Science Review 89 (2): 271–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brosnan, Sarah F., Cassiopeia, Freeman, and Frans, B. M. de Waal. 2006. “Partner's Behavior, Not Reward Distribution, Determines Success in an Unequal Cooperative Task in Capuchin Monkeys.” American Journal of Primatology 68: 713–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burton, P. R., Scurrah, K. J., Tobin, M. D., and Palmer, L. J.. 2005. “Covariance Components Models for Longitudinal Family Data.” International Journal of Epidemiology 34 (5): 1063–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carmen, Ira H. 2004. Politics in the Laboratory: The Constitution of Human Genomics. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Cassel, C. A. 1999. “Voluntary Associations, Churches, and Social Participation Theories of Turnout.” Social Science Quarterly 80 (3): 504–17.Google Scholar
Cesarini, David, Christopher, T. Dawes, James, H. Fowler, Magnus, Johannesson, Paul, Lichtenstein, Björn, Wallace. 2008. “Heritability of Cooperative Behavior in the Trust Game.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (10): 3721–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, Ming-Hui, Amita, K. Manatunga, and Christopher, J. Williams. 1998. “Heritability Estimates from Human Twin Data by Incorporating Historical Prior Information.” Biometrics 54 (4): 1348–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cho, W. K. T. 1999. “Naturalization, Socialization, Participation: Immigrants and (Non-) Voting.” Journal of Politics 61 (4): 1140–55.Google Scholar
Clinton, Joshua, Simon, Jackman, and Doug, Rivers. 2004. “The Statistical Analysis of Roll Call Data.” American Political Science Review 98 (2): 355–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawes, Christopher T., and James, H. Fowler. 2008. “Partisanship, Voting, and the Dopamine D2 Receptor Gene.” (January 31, 2008). Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1089365.Google Scholar
de Waal, Frans. 1998 [1982]. Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex among Apes. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.Google Scholar
DeFries, J. C., and Fulker, D. W.. 1985. “Multiple Regression Analysis of Twin Data.” Behavior Genetics 15 (5): 467–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DiMaggio, P., Hargittai, E., and Neuman, W. R.. 2001. “Social Implications of the Internet.” Annual Review of Sociology 27: 307–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Do, K. A., Broom, B. M., Kuhnert, P., Duffy, D. L., Todorov, A. A., Treloar, S. A., and Martin, N. G.. 2000. “Genetic Analysis of the Age at Menopause by Using Estimating Equations and Bayesian Random Effects Models.” Statistics in Medicine 19 (9): 1217–35.3.0.CO;2-Q>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Downs, Anthony. 1957. An Economic Theory of Democracy. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
Eaves, L., and Erkanli, A.. 2003. “Markov Chain Monte Carlo Approaches to Analysis of Genetic and Environmental Components of Human Developmental Change and G X E Interaction.” Behavior Genetics 33 (3): 279–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eaves, L., Erkanli, A., Silberg, J., Angold, A., Maes, H. H., and Foley, D.. 2005. “Application of Bayesian Inference Using Gibbs Sampling to Item-Response Theory Modeling of Multi-Symptom Genetic Data.” Behavior Genetics 35 (6): 765–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eaves, Lindon J., and Peter, Peter K. Hatemi. 2008. “Transmission of attitudes toward abortion and gay rights: Parental socialization or parental mate selection?” Behavior Genetics, fothcoming.Google Scholar
Edlin, Aaron, Andrew, Gelman, and Noah, Kaplan. 2007. “Voting as a Rational Choice: Why and How People Vote to Improve the Well-Being of Others.” Rationality and Society forthcoming.Google Scholar
Evans, D. M., Gillespie, N. A., and Martin, N. G.. 2002. “Biometric Genetics.” Biological Psychology 61: 33–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feddersen, T., and Sandroni, A.. 2006. “A Theory of Participation in Elections.” American Economic Review 96 (4): 1271–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkel, S. E. 1985. “Reciprocal Effects of Participation and Political Efficacy: A Panel Analysis.” American Political Science Review 29 (4): 891–913.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzpatrick, M. J., Ben-Shahar, Y., Smid, H. M., Vet, L. E. M., Robinson, G. E., and Sokolowski, M. B.. 2005. “Candidate Genes for Behavioural Ecology.” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 20 (2): 96–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fowler, James H. 2006a. “Altruism and Turnout.” Journal of Politics 68 (3): 674–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowler, James H. 2006b. “Habitual Voting and Behavioral Turnout.” Journal of Politics 68 (2): 335–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowler, James H., and Dawes, Christopher T.. 2008. “Two Genes Predict Voter Turnout.” Journal of Politics 70 (3), TBA.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowler, James H., and Cindy, D. Kam. 2006. “Patience as a Political Virtue: Delayed Gratification and Turnout.” Political Behavior 28 (2): 113–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowler, James H., and Cindy, D. Kam. 2007. “Beyond the Self: Altruism, Social Identity, and Political Participation.” Journal of Politics 69 (3): 811–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freese, Jeremy, and Brian, Powell. 2003. “Tilting at Twindmills: Rethinking Sociological Responses to Behavioral Genetics.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 44 (2): 130–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galston, W. A. 2001. “Political Knowledge, Political Engagement, and Civic Education.” Annual Review of Political Science 4: 214–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gelman, Andrew, Carlin, John B., Stern, Hal S., and Rubin, Donald B.. 2004. Bayesian Data Analysis. New York: Chapman & Hall/CRC.Google Scholar
Gelman, Andrew, King, Gary, and Boscardin, W. John. 1998. “Estimating the Probability of Events That Have Never Occurred: When Is Your Vote Decisive?” Journal of the American Statistical Association 93 (441): 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerber, A. S., Green, D. P., and Shachar, R.. 2003. “Voting May Be Habit-Forming: Evidence from a Randomized Field Experiment.” American Journal of Political Science 47 (3): 540–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gimpel, J. G., and Schuknecht, J. E.. 2003. “Political Participation and the Accessibility of the Ballot Box.” Political Geography 22 (5): 471–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, D. P., and Shachar, R.. 2000. “Habit Formation and Political Behaviour: Evidence of Consuetude in Voter Turnout.” British Journal of Political Science 30: 561–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haberstick, B. C., Lessem, J. K., Hopfer, C. J., Smolen, A., Ehringer, M. A., Timberlake, D., and Hewitt, J. K.. 2005. “Monoamine Oxidase a (Maoa) and Antisocial Behaviors in the Presence of Childhood and Adolescent Maltreatment.” American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B (Neuropsychiatric Genetics) 135b: 59–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hannagan, Rebecca, and Hatemi, Peter K.. 2008. “A Comment on the Genetics of Political Attitudes Debate.” Perspectives on Politics, forthcoming.Google Scholar
Harris, Kathleen Mullan, Halpern, Carolyn Tucker, Smolen, Andrew, and Haberstick, Brett C.. 2006. “The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) Twin Data.” Twin Research and Human Genetics 9 (6): 988–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hatemi, P. K., Medland, S. E., Morley, K. I., Heath, A. C., and Martin, N. G.. 2007. “The Genetics of Voting: An Australian Twin Study.” Behavior Genetics 37 (3): 435–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hetherington, M. J. 1999. “The Effect of Political Trust on the Presidential Vote, 1968–1996.” American Political Science Review 93 (3): 311–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Highton, Benjamin, and Wolfinger, Raymond E.. 2001. “The First Seven Years of the Political Life Cycle.” American Journal of Political Science 45 (1): 202–09.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hopfer, C. J., Timberlake, D., Haberstick, B., Lessem, J. M., Ehringer, M. A., Smolen, A., and Hewitt, J. K.. 2005. “Genetic Influences on Quantity of Alcohol Consumed by Adolescents and Young Adults.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence 78: 187–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horwitz, A. V., Videon, T. M., and Schmitz, M. F.. 2003. “Rethinking Twins and Environments: Possible Social Sources for Assumed Genetic Influences in Twin Research.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 44 (2): 111–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huckfeldt, R., and Sprague, J.. 1992. “Political Parties and Electoral Mobilization: Political Structure, Social Structure, and the Party Canvass.” American Political Science Review 86 (1): 70–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huckfeldt, Robert. 1979. “Political Participation and the Neighborhood Social Context.” American Journal of Political Science 23 (3): 579–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackman, R. W., and Miller, R. A.. 1995. “Voter Turnout in the Industrial Democracies During the 1980s.” Comparative Political Studies 27 (4): 467–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobson, K. C., and Rowe, D. C.. 1998. “Genetic and Shared Environment Influences on Adolescent BMI: Interaction with Race and Sex.” Behavior Genetics 28: 265–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jankowski, Richard. 2002. “Buying a Lottery Ticket to Help the Poor-Altruism, Civic Duty, and Self-Interest in the Decision to Vote.” Rationality and Society 14 (1): 55–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jankowski, Richard. 2007. “Altruism and the Decision to Vote: Explaining and Testing High Voter Turnout.” Rationality and Society 19 (1): 4–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karp, J. A., and Brockington, D.. 2005. “Social Desirability and Response Validity: A Comparative Analysis of Overreporting Voter Turnout in Five Countries.” Journal of Politics 67 (3): 825–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Martin, Nick G., Heath, A. C., and Eaves, L. J.. 1995. “Self-report psychiatric symptoms in twins and their nontwin relatives: are twins different? American Journal of Medical Genetics (Neuropsychiatric Genetics) 60: 588–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krause, Merton S., Houlihan, Kevin, Oberlander, Mark I., and Carson, Lawrence. 1970. “Some Motivational Correlates of Attitudes toward Political Participation.” Midwest Journal of Political Science 14 (3): 383–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuhnert, Petra M., and Do, Kim-Anh. 2003. “Fitting Genetic Models to Twin Data with Binary and Ordered Categorical Responses: A Comparison of Structural Equation Modelling and Bayesian Hierarchical Models.” Behavior Genetics 33 (4): 441–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lake, R. L., and Robert, Huckfeldt. 1998. “Social Capital, Social Networks, and Political Participation.” Political Psychology 19 (3): 567–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lane, R. E. 1959. Political Life. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Leighley, J. E., and Nagler, J.. 1992a. “Individual and Systemic Influences on Turnout—Who Votes 1984.” Journal of Politics 54 (3): 718–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leighley, J. E., and Nagler, J.. 1992b. “Socioeconomic-Class Bias in Turnout, 1964–1988—the Voters Remain the Same.” American Political Science Review 86 (3): 725–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levinson, D. J. 1958. “The Relevance of Personality for Political-Participation.” Public Opinion Quarterly 22 (1): 3–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, Nick G., Eaves, Lyndon J., Heath, A. C., Jardine, R., Feingold, L. M.., and Eysenck, H. J.. 1986. “Transmission of Social Atitudes.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 83 (12): 4364–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masters, Roger D. 1990. “Evolutionary Biology and Political Theory.” American Political Science Review 84 (1): 195–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matsusaka, J. G., and Palda, F.. 1999. “Voter Turnout: How Much Can We Explain?” Public Choice 98 (3–4): 431–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGue, M., Bacon, S., and Lykken, D. T.. 1993. “Personality Stability and Change in Early Adulthood—a Behavioral Genetic-Analysis.” Developmental Psychology 29 (1): 96–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGue, M., and Bouchard, T. J.. 1998. “Genetic and Environmental Influences on Human Behavioral Differences.” Annual Review of Neuroscience 21 (1): 1–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLeod, J. M., Scheufele, D. A., and Moy, P.. 1999. “Community, Communication, and Participation: The Role of Mass Media and Interpersonal Discussion in Local Political Participation.” Political Communication 16 (3): 315–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merelman, Richard M. 1971. “The Development of Policy Thinking in Adolescence.” American Political Science Review 65 (4): 1033–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, Arthur H., Gurin, P., and Gurin, G.. 1981. “Group Consciousness and Political Participation.” American Journal of Political Science 25 (3): 494–511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, Warren E., and Shanks, J. Merrill. 1996. The New American Voter. Cambridge, Mass.; London: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Mutz, Diana C. 2002. “The Consequences of Cross-Cutting Networks for Political Participation.” American Journal of Political Science 46 (4): 838–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neale, M. C., and Cardon, L. R.. 1992. Methodology for Genetic Studies of Twins and Families. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nie, Norman H., Powell, G. B., and Prewitt, K.. 1969a. “Social Structure and Political Participation—Developmental Relationships.” American Political Science Review 63 (2): 361–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nie, Norman H., Powell, G.B., and Prewitt, K.. 1969b. “Social Structure and Political Participation—Developmental Relationships.” American Political Science Review 63 (3): 808–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palfrey, Thomas R., and Rosenthal, Howard. 1985. “Voter Participation and Strategic Uncertainty.” American Political Science Review 79 (1): 62–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plutzer, Eric. 2002. “Becoming a Habitual Voter: Inertia, Resources, and Growth in Young Adulthood.” American Political Science Review 96 (1): 41–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, S., Baker, L. A., and Martin, N. G.. 1996. “Social Contact and Attitude Similarity in Australian Twins.” Behavior Genetics 26: 123–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prescott, C. A. 2004. Behavior Genetics 34: 17–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riker, W. H., and Ordeshook, P. C.. 1968. “A Theory of the Calculus of Voting.” American Political Science Review 62 (1): 25–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Risch, N. 2001. “The Genetic Epidemiology of Cancer: Interpreting Family and Twin Studies and Their Implications for Molecular Genetic Approaches.” Cancer Epidemiology: Biomarkers and Prevention 10 (7): 733–41.Google ScholarPubMed
Rosenstone, Steven J., and Wolfinger, R. E.. 1978. “Effect of Registration Laws on Voter Turnout.” American Political Science Review 72 (1): 22–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rushton, J. P., Fulker, D. W., Neale, M. C., Nias, D. K. B., and Eysenck, H. J.. 1986. “Altruism and Aggression—the Heritability of Individual-Differences.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (6): 1192–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schlozman, Kay L., Burns, Nancy, Verba, Sidney, and Donahue, Jesse. 1995. “Gender and Citizen Participation: Is There a Different Voice?” American Journal of Political Science 39 (2): 267–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scourfield, J., John, B., Martin, N., and McGuffin, P.. 2004. “The Development of Prosocial Behaviour in Children and Adolescents: A Twin Study.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 45 (5): 927–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sears, David O. 1987. “Political Psychology.” Annual Review of Psychology 38: 229–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shachar, R., and Nalebuff, B.. 1999. “Follow the Leader: Theory and Evidence on Political Participation.” American Economic Review 89 (3): 525–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Somit, A., Tanenhaus, J., Wilke, W. H., and Cooley, R. W.. 1958. “The Effect of the Introductory Political Science Course on Student Attitudes toward Personal Political Participation.” American Political Science Review 52 (4): 1129–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Somit, Albert, and Peterson, Steven A.. 1998. “Biopolitics after Three Decades—a Balance Sheet.” British Journal of Political Science 28 (3): 559–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoker, Laura, and Jennings, M. K.. 1995. “Life-Cycle Transitions and Political Participation: The Case of Marriage.” American Political Science Review 89 (2): 421–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strate, John M., Parrish, Charles J., Elder, Charles D., and Ford, Coit. 1989. “Life Span Civic Development and Voting Participation.” American Political Science Review 83 (2): 443–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timpone, Richard J. 1998. “Structure, Behavior, and Voter Turnout in the United States.” American Political Science Review 92 (1): 145–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turkheimer, Eric. 1998. “Heritability and Biological Explanation.” Psychological Review 105 (4): 782–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turkheimer, Eric, and Waldron, Mary C.. 2000. “Nonshared Environment: A Theoretical, Methodological, and Quantitative Review.” Psychological Bulletin 126 (1): 78–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
vanden Berg, P. M. den Berg, P. M., Setiawan, A., Bartels, M., Polderman, T. J. C., Vaart, A. W. van der, and Boomsma, D. I.. 2006. “Individual Differences in Puberty Onset in Girls: Bayesian Estimation of Heritabilities and Genetic Correlations.” Behavior Genetics 36 (2): 261–70.Google Scholar
van den Berg, S. M., Beem, L., and Boomsma, D. I.. 2006. “Fitting Genetic Models Using Markov Chain Monte Carlo Algorithms with Bugs.” Twin Research and Human Genetics 9 (3): 334–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verba, Sidney, and Nie, Norman H.. 1972. Participation in America: Political Democracy and Social. New York Harper & Row, 1972.Google Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Schlozman, Kay L., and Brady, Henry E.. 1993. “Race, Ethnicity, and Political Resources—Participation in the Unites States.” British Journal of Political Science 23 (4): 453–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Schlozman, Kay Lehman, and Brady, Henry E.. 1995. Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Visscher, Peter M., Medland, Sarah E., Ferreira, Manuel A. R., Morley, Katherine I., Zhu, Gu, Cornes, Belinda K., Montgomery, Grant W., and Martin, Nicholas G.. 2006. “Assumption-Free Estimation of Heritability from Genome-Wide Identity-by-Descent Sharing between Full Siblings.” PLOS GENETICS 2 (3): 316–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wielhouwer, P. W., and Lockerbie, B.. 1994. “Party Contacting and Political-Participation, 1952–90.” American Journal of Political Science 38 (1): 211–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar