Hostname: page-component-cb9f654ff-5kfdg Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-08-11T04:34:40.626Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

International Sports Events and Repression in Autocracies: Evidence from the 1978 FIFA World Cup

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 October 2022

ADAM SCHARPF Open the ORCID record for ADAM SCHARPF [Opens in a new window] ,
CHRISTIAN GLÄßEL Open the ORCID record for CHRISTIAN GLÄßEL [Opens in a new window]  and
PEARCE EDWARDS Open the ORCID record for PEARCE EDWARDS [Opens in a new window]
ADAM SCHARPF*
Affiliation:
University of Copenhagen, Denmark
CHRISTIAN GLÄßEL*
Affiliation:
Hertie School, Germany
PEARCE EDWARDS*
Affiliation:
Carnegie Mellon University, United States
*
Adam Scharpf, Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Copenhagen, Denmark, adam.scharpf@ifs.ku.dk.
Christian Gläßel, Postdoctoral Researcher, Center for International Security, Hertie School, Germany, glaessel@hertie-school.org.
Pearce Edwards, Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute for Politics and Strategy, Carnegie Mellon University, United States, pearcee@andrew.cmu.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

How do international sports events shape repression in authoritarian host countries? International tournaments promise unique gains in political prestige through global media attention. However, autocrats must fear that foreign journalists will unmask their wrongdoings. We argue that autocracies solve this dilemma by strategically adjusting repression according to the spatial-temporal presence of international media. Using original, highly disaggregated data on the 1978 World Cup, we demonstrate that the Argentine host government largely refrained from repression during the tournament but preemptively cleared the streets beforehand. These adjustments specifically occurred around hotels reserved for foreign journalists. Additional tests demonstrate that (1) before the tournament, repression turned increasingly covert, (2) during the tournament, targeting patterns mirrored the working shifts of foreign journalists, (3) after the tournament, regime violence again spiked in locations where international media had been present. Together, the article highlights the human costs of megaevents, contradicting the common whitewashing rhetoric of functionaries.

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
American Political Science Review , Volume 117 , Issue 3 , August 2023 , pp. 909 - 926
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the American Political Science Association

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Acevedo, Marcelo. 2018. “The Commentator of America and the Dictatorship.” Papelitos. http://papelitos.com.ar/nota/jose-maria-munoz.Google Scholar
Alrababa’h, Ala’, Marble, William, Mousa, Salma, and Siegel, Alexandra A.. 2021. “Can Exposure to Celebrities Reduce Prejudice? The Effect of Mohamed Salah on Islamophobic Behaviors and Attitudes.” American Political Science Review 115 (4): 1111–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amnesty International. 2015. “Equatorial Guinea: African Cup of Nations Peaceful Protesters Must Be Released.” January 29. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2015/01/equatorial-guinea-african-cup-nations-peaceful-protesters-must-be-released/.Google Scholar
Amnesty International. 2019. “Equatorial Guinea: 40 Years of Repression and Rule of Fear Highlights Human Rights Crisis.” August 2. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2019/08/equatorial-guinea-years-of-repression-and-rule-of-fear/.Google Scholar
Bachrach, Susan D. 2000. The Nazi Olympics: Berlin 1936. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company.Google Scholar
Balcells, Laia, and Sullivan, Christopher M.. 2018. “New Findings from Conflict Archives: An Introduction and Methodological Framework.” Journal of Peace Research 55 (2): 137–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, Colin J., and Haggerty, Kevin. 2012. Security Games: Surveillance and Control at Mega-Events. New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bertoia, Luciana. 2018. “The Newspaper that Told the Horror and the Glory.” Papelitos. http://papelitos.com.ar/nota/buenos-aires-herald.Google Scholar
Bertoli, Andrew D. 2017. “Nationalism and Conflict: Lessons from International Sports.” International Studies Quarterly 61 (4): 835–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bove, Vincenzo, and Rivera, Mauricio. 2015. “Elite Co-Optation, Repression, and Coups in Autocracies.” International Interactions 41 (3): 453–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowersox, Zack. 2018. International Sporting Events and Human Rights: Does the Host Nation Play Fair? Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Brancati, Dawn, and Wohlforth, William C.. 2021. “Why Authoritarians Love the Olympics: A Boycott of Beijing 2022 Will Do Little to Deter China Foreign Affairs.” Foreign Affairs 100 (2): 1–4.Google Scholar
Brownlee, Jason. 2007. Authoritarianism in an Age of Democratization. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brysk, Alison. 1994. “The Politics of Measurement: The Contested Count of the Disappeared in Argentina.” Human Rights Quarterly 16 (4): 676–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Mesquita, Bueno, Bruce, Alastair Smith, Siverson, Randolph M., and Morrow, James D.. 2003. The Logic of Political Survival. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bullentini, Ailín. 2018. “Cazadores y Cazados.” Papelitos. http://papelitos.com.ar/nota/el-ge78-de-mendoza-y-los-11-desaparecidos-del-mundial.Google Scholar
Burbank, Matthew, Andranovich, Gregory, and Heying, Charles H.. 2001. Olympic Dreams: The Impact of Mega-Events on Local Politics. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Busby, Ethan C., Druckman, James N., and Fredendall, Alexandria. 2017. “The Political Relevance of Irrelevant Events.” Journal of Politics 79 (1): 346–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canelo, Paula. 2018. “The EAM and the ‘Magnificent Party.’” Papelitos. http://papelitos.com.ar/nota/la-interna-de-la-dictadura-frente-al-mundial-78.Google Scholar
Carey, Sabine C., Gohdes, Anita R.. 2021. “Understanding Journalist Killings.” Journal of Politics 83 (4): 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carey, Sabine C., González, Belén, and Mitchell, Neil J.. 2021. “Media Freedom and the Escalation of State Violence.” Political Studies. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00323217211020243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlin, John. 2008. Playing the Enemy: Nelson Mandela and the Game That Made a Nation. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Carter, David B., and Signorino, Curtis. 2010. “Back to the Future: Modeling Time Dependence in Binary Data.” Political Analysis 18 (3): 271–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, Erin Baggott, and Carter, Brett L.. 2020. “Focal Moments and Protests in Autocracies: How Pro-Democracy Anniversaries Shape Dissent in China.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 64 (10): 1796–1827.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Central Intelligence Agency. 1978. “Weekly Situation Report on International Terrorism, 31 May 1978.” Argentina Declassification Project. https://www.intelligence.gov/argentina-declassification-project.Google Scholar
Cha, Victor D. 2009. Beyond the Final Score: The Politics of Sport in Asia. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Chenoweth, Erica, and Stephan, Maria J.. 2012. Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Comisión Nacional sobre la Desaparición de Personas (CONADEP). 1984. Legajos de Comisión sobre los Desaparecidos. https://catalogo.jus.gob.ar/index.php/fondo-conadep-comision-nacional-sobre-la-desaparicion-de-personas.Google Scholar
Conrad, Courtenay R., Conrad, Justin, Walsh, James Igoe, and Piazza, James A.. 2017. “Who Tortures the Terrorists? Transnational Terrorism and Military Torture.” Foreign Policy Analysis 13 (1): 761–86.Google Scholar
Danneman, Nathan, and Ritter, Emily Hencken. 2014. “Contagious Rebellion and Preemptive Repression.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 58 (2): 254–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davenport, Christian. 2007. “State Repression and Political Order.” Annual Review of Political Science 10:1–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davenport, Christian, and Ball, Patrick. 2002. “Views to a Kill: Exploring the Implications of Source Selection in the Case of Guatemalan State Terror, 1977-1995.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 46 (3): 427–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeMeritt, Jacqueline H. R. 2012. “International Organizations and Government Killing: Does Naming and Shaming Save Lives?” International Interactions 38 (5): 597–621.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeMeritt, Jacqueline H. R. 2016. “The Strategic Use of State Repression and Political Violence.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Empirical International Relations, ed. Thompson, William R.. Oxford: Oxford University Press. http://politics.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-32.Google Scholar
DeNardo, James. 1985. Power in Numbers: The Political Strategy of Protest and Rebellion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Depetris-Chauvin, Emilio, Durante, Ruben, and Campante, Filipe. 2020. “Building Nations through Shared Experiences: Evidence from African Football.” American Economic Review 110 (5): 1572–1602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Der Standard. 2019. “Madagaskar und Burundi Dürfen beim Afrika-Cup Mitkicken.” https://www.derstandard.de/story/2000105165127/afrika-cup-neu-auch-madagaskar-und-burundi-duerfen-mitmachen.Google Scholar
Dragu, Tiberiu, and Przeworski, Adam. 2019. “Preventive Repression: Two Types of Moral Hazard.” American Political Science Review 113 (1): 77–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dukalskis, Alexander. 2021. Making the World Safe for Dictatorship. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duke, Vic, and Crolley, Liz. 2014. Football, Nationality and the State. New York: Taylor & Francis.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ente Autárquico Mundial 78 (EAM). 1977. “Ente Autárquico Mundial 1978: Boletin No 7.” Magazine. https://www.argentina.gob.ar/anm/eam78/boletines-informativosGoogle Scholar
Ente Autárquico Mundial 78 (EAM). 1978. “Copa Mundial de la Fifa 1978: Programa Oficial y Social.” Document, May 17. https://www.argentina.gob.ar/anm/eam78/programa-oficial-copa-mundial-fifaGoogle Scholar
Fariss, Christopher J., Kenwick, Michael R., and Reuning, Kevin. 2020. “Estimating One-Sided-Killings from a Robust Measurement Model of Human Rights.” Journal of Peace Research 57 (6): 801–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FIFA. 2018. “The 2018 FIFA World Cup in Numbers.” FIFA Official Report. https://resources.fifa.com/image/upload/the-2018-fifa-world-cuptm-in-numbers.pdf?cloudid=veij99mubas9idvf47rl.Google Scholar
Frantz, Erica. 2018. Authoritarianism: What Everyone Needs to Know. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gandhi, Jennifer. 2008. Political Institutions under Dictatorship. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gandhi, Jennifer, and Przeworski, Adam. 2006. “Cooperation, Cooptation, and Rebellion under Dictatorships.” Economics & Politics 18 (1): 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gandhi, Jennifer, and Przeworski, Adam. 2007. “Authoritarian Institutions and the Survival of Autocrats.” Comparative Political Studies 40 (11): 1279–1301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geddes, Barbara, Wright, Joseph, and Frantz, Erica. 2018. How Dictatorships Work: Power, Personalization, and Collapse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerschewski, Johannes. 2013. “The Three Pillars of Stability: Legitimation, Repression, and Co-Optation in Autocratic Regimes.” Democratization 20 (1): 13–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gitlin, Todd. 2003. The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left. Oakland: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Gläßel, Christian, González, Belén, and Scharpf, Adam. 2020. “Grist to the Mill of Subversion: Strikes and Coups in Counterinsurgencies.” European Journal of International Relations 26 (4): 1032–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gläßel, Christian, and Paula, Katrin. 2020. “Sometimes Less Is More: Censorship, News Falsification, and Disapproval in 1989 East Germany.” American Journal of Political Science 64 (3): 682–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greitens, Sheena Chestnut. 2016. Dictators and Their Secret Police: Coercive Institutions and State Violence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, Nick. 2010. “World Cup Final ‘Will Vie for Record of Second Most-Watched Event in Human History.” Sportingintelligence. June 10. http://www.sportingintelligence.com/2010/06/10/world-cup-final-will-vie-for-record-of-second-most-watched-event-in-human-history-100605/.Google Scholar
Hassan, Mai, and O’Mealia, Thomas. 2018. “Uneven Accountability in the Wake of Political Violence: Evidence from Kenya’s Ashes and Archives.” Journal of Peace Research 55 (2): 161–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Healy, Andrew J., Malhotra, Neil, and Mo, Cecilia Hyunjung. 2010. “Irrelevant Events Affect Voters’ Evaluations of Government Performance.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (29): 12804–809.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Human Rights Watch. 2008. “China: Police Detain Would-Be Olympic Protesters.” August 13. https://www.hrw.org/news/2008/08/13/china-police-detain-would-be-olympic-protesters.Google Scholar
International Olympic Committee (IOC). 2014. “Host City Contract for the XXIV Olympic Winter Games in the Year 2022.” https://stillmed.olympic.org/Documents/Host_city_elections/Host-City-Contract-XXIV-Olympic-Winter-Games-in-2022–Beijing-Execution-no-signature.pdf.Google Scholar
Botta, Jiménez, Felix, A. 2016. “‘Yes to Football, No to Torture!’ The Politics of the 1978 Football World Cup in West Germany.” Sport in Society 20 (10): 1440–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keck, Margaret E., and Sikkink, Kathryn. 1998. Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
King, Gary, Pan, Jennifer, and Roberts, Margaret E.. 2017. “How the Chinese Government Fabricates Social Media Posts for Strategic Distraction, Not Engaged Argument.” American Political Science Review 111 (3): 484–501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klor, Esteban F., Saiegh, Sebastian M., and Satyanath, Shanker. 2020. “Cronyism in State Violence: Evidence from Labor Repression during Argentina’s Last Dictatorship.” Journal of the European Economic Association 19 (3): 1439–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knott, Brendon, Fyall, Alan D., and Jones, Ian. 2015. “The Nation Branding Opportunities Provided by a Sport Mega-Event: South Africa and the 2010 FIFA World Cup.” Journal of Destination Marketing & Management 4 (1): 46–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kobierecki, Michał Marcin, and Strożek, Piotr. 2017. “Sport as a Factor of Nation Branding: A Quantitative Approach.” The International Journal of the History of Sport 34 (7–8): 697–712.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuper, Simon. 2011. Football against the Enemy. London: Orion.Google Scholar
Lewis, Paul H. 2002. Guerrillas and Generals. Westport, CT: Preager Publishers.Google Scholar
Lin, Huei-Wen, and Lu, Huei-Fu. 2018. “A Longitudinal Assessment on the Economic Effects of Hosting Major Sporting Events.” Applied Economics 50 (56): 6085–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magaloni, Beatriz. 2006. Voting for Autocracy: Hegemonic Party Survival and Its Demise in Mexico. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malis, Matt, and Smith, Alastair. 2021. “State Visits and Leader Survival.” American Journal of Political Science 65 (1): 241–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, Simon. 2004. Football and Fascism: The National Game under Mussolini. New York: Berg.Google Scholar
McMillan, John, and Zoido, Pablo. 2004. “How to Subvert Democracy: Montesinos in Peru.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 18 (4): 69–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miguel, Edward, Saiegh, Sebastian M., and Satyanath, Shanker. 2011. “Civil War Exposure and Violence.” Economics & Politics 23 (1): 59–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Foreign Assessment Center. 1978. “Latin America Weekly Review, 1 June 1978.” Argentina Declassification Project. https://www.intelligence.gov/argentina-declassification-project.Google Scholar
Orttung, Robert W., and Zhemukhov, Sufian N.. 2017. Putin’s Olympics: The Sochi Games and the Evolution of Twenty-First Century Russia. Abington, UK: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Osorio, Javier, Schubiger, Livia I., and Weintraub, Michael. 2018. “Disappearing Dissent? Repression and State Consolidation in Mexico.” Journal of Peace Research 55 (2): 252–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pears, Tim. 2006. “Salvation Army: Part Two.” The Guardian, June 4. https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2006/jun/04/worldcup2006.football4.Google Scholar
Pion-Berlin, David, and Lopez, Goerge A.. 1991. “Of Victims and Executioners: Argentine State Terror, 1975-1979.” International Studies Quarterly 35 (1): 63–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pomerantsev, Peter. 2014. Nothing Is True and Everything Is Possible: The Surreal Heart of the New Russia. New York: Public Affairs.Google Scholar
Asia, Radio Free. 2008. “China’s Empty Protest Zones.” August 18. https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/protest-08182008112114.html.Google Scholar
Rein, Raanan. 2014. Football, Politics and Protests. The International Campaign against the 1978 World Cup in Argentina. In The FIFA World Cup 1930–2010, eds. Rinke, Stefan and Schiller, Kay, 240–58. Göttingen, DE: Wallstein Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rein, Raanan, and Davidi, Efraim. 2009. “Sport, Politics and Exile: Protests in Israel during the World Cup (Argentina, 1978).” The International Journal of the History of Sport 26 (5): 673–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Relano, Alfredo. 1978. “Polémica internacional en torno al Mundial de Fútbol.” El País. March 31. https://elpais.com/diario/1978/03/31/deportes/260146810_850215.html.Google Scholar
Ritter, Emily Hencken, and Conrad, Courtenay R.. 2016. “Preventing and Responding to Dissent: The Observational Challenges of Explaining Strategic Repression.” American Political Science Review 110 (1): 85–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, Margaret E. 2018. Censored: Distraction and Diversion inside China’s Great Firewall. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Roche, Maurice. 2000. Mega-Events and Modernity: Olympics and Expos in the Growth of Global Culture. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Rose, Andrew K., and Spiegel, Mark M.. 2011. “The Olympic Effect.” The Economic Journal 121 (553): 652–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenzweig, Leah R., and Zhou, Yang-Yang. 2021. “Team and Nation: Sports, Nationalism, and Attitudes toward Refugees.” Comparative Political Studies 54 (12): 2123–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rozenas, Arturas, Schutte, Sebastian, and Zhukov, Yuri. 2017. “The Political Legacy of Violence: The Long-Term Impact of Stalin’s Repression in Ukraine.” Journal of Politics 79 (4): 1147–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sagaian, Nicolás. 2018a. “The Communication Agency of the Dictatorship.” Papelitos. http://papelitos.com.ar/nota/mundial-78-la-campana-publicitaria-de-burson-marsteller.Google Scholar
Sagaian, Nicolás. 2018b. “Videla’s Guest of Honour.” Papelitos. http://papelitos.com.ar/nota/henry-kissinger-en-el-mundial-78.Google Scholar
Sagaian, Nicolás. 2018c. “With Death on the Heels.” Papelitos. http://papelitos.com.ar/nota/el-espionaje-antes-y-durante-el-mundial-78.Google Scholar
Scharpf, Adam. 2018. “Ideology and State Terror: How Officer Beliefs Shaped Repression during Argentina’s ‘Dirty War.’” Journal of Peace Research 55 (2): 206–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scharpf, Adam, and Gläßel, Christian. 2020. “Why Underachievers Dominate Secret Police Organizations: Evidence from Autocratic Argentina.” American Journal of Political Science 64 (4): 791–806.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scharpf, Adam, Gläßel, Christian, and Edwards, Pearce. 2022. “Replication Data for: International Sports Events and Repression in Autocracies: Evidence from the 1978 FIFA World Cup.” Harvard Dataverse. Dataset. https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/RJY34I.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steenveld, Lynette, and Strelitz, Larry. 1998. “The 1995 Rugby World Cup and the Politics of Nation-Building in South Africa.” Media, Culture & Society 20 (4): 609–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Storm, Rasmus K., and Jakobsen, Tor Georg. 2020. “National Pride, Sporting Success and Event Hosting: An Analysis of Intangible Effects Related to Major Athletic Tournaments.” International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 12 (1): 163–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strezhnev, Anton, Kelley, Judith G., and Simmons, Beth A.. 2021. “Testing for Negative Spillovers: Is Promoting Human Rights Really Part of the ‘Problem’?” International Organization 75 (1): 71–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, Christopher M. 2016. “Political Repression and the Destruction of Dissident Organizations: Evidence from the Archives of the Guatemalan National Police.” World Politics 68 (4): 645–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sutton, Jonathan, Butcher, Charles R., and Svensson, Isak. 2014. “Explaining Political Jiu-Jitsu: Institution-Building and the Outcomes of Regime Violence against Unarmed Protests.” Journal of Peace Research 51 (5): 559–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Svolik, Milan W. 2012. The Politics of Authoritarian Rule. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tannenberg, Marcus, Bernhard, Michael, Gerschewski, Johannes, Lührmann, Anna, and Von Soest, Christian. 2021. “Claiming the Right to Rule: Regime Legitimation Strategies from 1900 to 2019.” European Political Science Review 13 (1): 77–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomlinson, Alan, and Young, Christopher. 2006. National Identity and Global Sports Events: Culture, Politics, and Spectacle in the Olympics and the Football World Cup. Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Truex, Rory. 2019. “Focal Points, Dissident Calendars, and Preemptive Repression.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 63 (4): 1032–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tufekci, Zeynep. 2017. Twitter and Tear Gas: The Power and Fragility of Networked Protest. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Verrina, Mariano. 2018. “It Is Better Not To Talk about Certain Things.” Papelitos. http://papelitos.com.ar/nota/el-periodismo-deportivo-durante-el-mundial-78.Google Scholar
Weidmann, Nils B. 2016. “A Closer Look at Reporting Bias in Conflict Event Data.” American Journal of Political Science 60 (1): 206–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitten-Woodring, Jenifer. 2009. “Watchdog or Lapdog? Media Freedom, Regime Type, and Government Respect for Human Rights.” International Studies Quarterly 53 (3): 595–625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wintrobe, Ronald. 1998. The Political Economy of Dictatorship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimbalist, Andrew. 2020. Circus Maximus: The Economic Gamble behind Hosting the Olympics and the World Cup. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Scharpf et al. supplementary material

Scharpf et al. supplementary material

Download Scharpf et al. supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 1.5 MB
Supplementary material: Link

Scharpf et al. Dataset

Dataset

https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/RJY34I
Link
Submit a response

Comments

No Comments have been published for this article.