Hostname: page-component-89b8bd64d-rbxfs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-05-09T20:41:45.211Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Factors controlling the accelerated expansion of Imja Lake, Mount Everest region, Nepal

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 March 2016

Sudeep Thakuri ,
Franco Salerno ,
Tobias Bolch ,
Nicolas Guyennon  and
Gianni Tartari
Sudeep Thakuri*
Affiliation:
National Research Council, Water Research Institute (IRSA-CNR), Brugherio, Italy Department of Earth Sciences ‘Ardito Desio’, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
Franco Salerno
Affiliation:
National Research Council, Water Research Institute (IRSA-CNR), Brugherio, Italy Ev-K2-CNR Association, Bergamo, Italy
Tobias Bolch
Affiliation:
Department of Geography, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland Institute for Cartography, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
Nicolas Guyennon
Affiliation:
National Research Council, Water Research Institute (IRSA-CNR), Brugherio, Italy
Gianni Tartari
Affiliation:
National Research Council, Water Research Institute (IRSA-CNR), Brugherio, Italy Ev-K2-CNR Association, Bergamo, Italy
*
Correspondence: Sudeep Thakuri <thakuri@irsa.cnr.it>
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the 'Save PDF' action button.

This study explores the link between area increase of Imja Tsho (Lake) and changes of Imja Glacier (area ~25km2) under the influence of climate change using multitemporal satellite imagery and local climate data. Between 1962 and 2013, Imja Lake expanded from 0.03±0.01 to 1.35±0.05 km2 at a rate of 0.026±0.001 km2 a-1. The mean glacier-wide flow velocity was 37±30ma-1 during 1992–93 and 23±15ma-1 during 2013–14, indicating a decreasing velocity. A mean elevation change of –1.29±0.71ma-1 was observed over the lower part of the glacier in the period 2001–14, with a rate of –1.06±0.63ma-1 in 2001–08 and –1.56±0.80ma-1 in 2008–14. We conclude that the decrease in flow velocity is mainly associated with reduced accumulation due to a decrease in precipitation during the last few decades. Furthermore, glacier ablation has increased due to increasing maximum temperatures during the post-monsoon months. Decreased glacier flow velocities and increased mass losses induce the formation and subsequent expansion of glacial lakes under favourable topographic conditions.

Keywords

climate changeglacier flowglacier hazardsmountain glaciersremote sensing

Information

Type
Paper
Information
Annals of Glaciology , Volume 57 , Issue 71 , March 2016 , pp. 245 - 257
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BY
This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2016

References

Bahr, DB, Pfeffer, WT, Sassolas, C and Meier, MF (1998) Response time of glaciers as a function of size and mass balance: 1. Theory. J. Geophys. Res., 103(B5), 9777–9782 (doi: 10.1029/98JB0050)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bajracharya, B, Shrestha, AB and Rajbhandari, L (2007) Glacial lake outburst floods in the Sagarmatha region: hazard assessment using GIS and hydrodynamic modeling. Mt. Res. Dev., 27(4), 336–344 (doi: 10.1659/mrd.0783)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Basnett, S, Kulkarni, AV and Bolch, T (2013) The influence of debris cover and glacial lakes on the recession of glaciers in Sikkim Himalaya, India. J. Glaciol., 59(218), 1035–1046 (doi: 10.3189/2013JoG12J184)Google Scholar
Benn, D, Wiseman, S and Hands, K (2001) Growth and drainage of supraglacial lakes on debris-mantled Ngozumpa Glacier, Khumbu Himal, Nepal. J. Glaciol., 47(159), 626–638 (doi: 10.3189/172756501781831729)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benn, DI and 9 others (2012) Response of debris-covered glaciers in the Mount Everest region to recent warming, and implications for outburst flood hazards. Earth-Sci. Rev., 114, 156–174 (doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.03.008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolch, T, Buchroithner, MF, Peters, J, Baessler, M and Bajracharya, S (2008a) Identification of glacier motion and potentially dangerous glacial lakes in the Mt Everest region/Nepal using space-borne imagery. Natur. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 8, 1329–1340 (doi: 10.5194/nhess-8-1329-2008)Google Scholar
Bolch, T, Buchroithner, M, Pieczonka, T and Kunert, A (2008b) Planimetric and volumetric glacier changes in the Khumbu Himalaya since 1962 using Corona, Landsat TM and ASTER data. J. Glaciol., 54, 592–600 (doi: 10.3189/002214308786570782)Google Scholar
Bolch, T, Pieczonka, T and Benn, DI (2011) Multi-decadal mass loss of glaciers in the Everest area (Nepal Himalaya) derived from stereo imagery. Cryosphere, 5, 349–358 (doi: 10.5194/tc-5-349-2011)Google Scholar
Brun, F and 8 others (2015) Seasonal changes in surface albedo of Himalayan glaciers from MODIS data and links with the annual mass balance. Cryosphere, 9, 341–355 (doi: 10.5194/tc-9-341-2015)Google Scholar
Cuffey, KM and Paterson, WSB (2010) The physics of glaciers, 4th edn. Academic Press, Amsterdam Google Scholar
Fujii, Y and Higuchi, K (1977) Statistical analysis of the forms of the glaciers in the Khumbu Himal. Seppyo, J. Jpn. Soc. Snow Ice, 39, 7–14 Google Scholar
Fujita, K, Sakai, A, Nuimura, T, Yamaguchi, S and Sharma, RR (2009) Recent changes in Imja Glacial Lake and its damming moraine in the Nepal Himalaya revealed by in situ surveys and multitemporal ASTER imagery. Environ. Res. Lett., 4, 045205 (doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/4/4/045205)Google Scholar
Gardelle, J, Arnaud, Y and Berthier, E (2011) Contrasted evolution of glacial lakes along the Hindu Kush Himalayan mountain range between 1990 and 2009. Global Planet. Change, 75, 47–55 (doi: 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2010.10.003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardelle, J, Berthier, E, Arnaud, Y and Kääb, A (2013) Region-wide glacier mass balances over the Pamir–Karakoram–Himalaya during 1999–2011. Cryosphere, 7, 1263–1286 (doi: 10.5194/tc-7-1263-2013)Google Scholar
Global Land Ice Measurements from Space (GLIMS) and National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) (2005) GLIMS glacier database. National Snow and Ice Data Center, Boulder, CO (doi: 10.7265/N5V98602)Google Scholar
Hall, DK, Bayr, KJ, Schoner, W, Bindschadler, RA and Chien, JYL (2003) Consideration of the errors inherent in mapping historical glacier positions in Austria from the ground and space (1893–2001). Remote Sens. Environ., 86, 566–577 Google Scholar
Heid, T and Kääb, A (2012) Evaluation of existing image matching methods for deriving glacier surface displacements globally from optical satellite imagery. Remote Sens. Environ., 118, 339–355 (doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2011.11.024)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Höhle, J and Höhle, M (2009) Accuracy assessment of digital elevation models by means of robust statistical methods. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens., 64, 398–406 (doi: 10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2009.02.003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huss, M (2013) Density assumptions for converting geodetic glacier volume change to mass change. Cryosphere, 7, 877–887 (doi: 10.5194/tc-7-877-2013)Google Scholar
Ichiyanagi, K, Yamanaka, MD, Muraji, Y and Vaidya, BK (2007) Precipitation in Nepal between 1987 and 1996. Int. J. Climatol., 27, 1753–1762 (doi: 10.1002/joc.1492)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kääb, A and Vollmer, M (2000) Surface geometry, thickness changes and flow fields on creeping mountain permafrost: automatic extraction by digital image analysis. Permafrost Periglac. Process., 11, 315–326 (doi: 10.1002/1099-1530(200012) 11:4<315::AID-PPP365>3.0.CO;2-J)3.0.CO;2-J>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kääb, A, Lefauconnier, B and Melvold, K (2005) Flow field of Kronebreen, Svalbard, using repeated Landsat 7 and ASTER data. Ann. Glaciol., 42, 7–13 (doi: 10.3189/172756405781812916)Google Scholar
Kamp, U, Bolch, T and Olsenholler, JA (2005) Geomorphometry of Cerro Sillajhuay, Chile/Bolivia: comparisons of DEMs derived from ASTER remote sensing data and contour maps. Geocarter Int., 20(1), 23–34 Google Scholar
Koblet, T and 6 others (2010) Reanalysis of multitemporal aerial images of Storglaciären, Sweden (1959–99) – Part 1: Determination of length, area, and volume changes. Cryosphere, 4, 333–343 (doi: 10.5194/tc-4-333-2010)Google Scholar
Kodama, H and Mae, S (1976) Flow of glaciers in the Khumbu region. Seppyo J. Jpn. Soc. Snow Ice, 38, 31–36 Google Scholar
Luckman, A, Quincey, D and Bevan, S (2007) The potential of satellite radar interferometry and feature tracking for monitoring flow rates of Himalayan glaciers. Remote Sens. Environ., 111(2–3), 172–181 (doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2007.05.019)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manfredi, EC and 16 others (2010) Solid waste and water quality management models for Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal: implementation of a participatory modeling framework. Mt. Res. Dev., 30, 127–142 (doi: 10.1659/MRDJOURNAL-D-10-00028.1)Google Scholar
McFeeters, SK (1996) The use of the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) in the delineation of open water features. Int. J. Remote Sens., 17(7), 1425–1432 (doi: 10.1080/01431169608948714)Google Scholar
Müller, F (1968) Mittelfristige Schwankungen der Oberflaechengeschwindigkeiten des Khumbugletschers am Mount Everest. Schweiz. Bauz., 86(31), 569–573 Google Scholar
Nakawo, M, Yabuki, H and Sakai, A (1999) Characteristics of Khumbu Glacier, Nepal Himalaya: recent changes in the debriscovered area. Ann. Glaciol., 28, 118–122 (doi: 10.3189/172756499781821788)Google Scholar
Nuimura, T, Fujita, K, Yamaguchi, S and Sharma, RR (2012) Elevation changes of glaciers revealed by multitemporal digital elevation models calibrated by GPS survey in the Khumbu region, Nepal Himalaya, 1992–2008. J. Glaciol., 58, 648–656 (doi: 10.3189/2012JoG11J061)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nuth, C and Kääb, A (2011) Co-registration and bias corrections of satellite elevation data sets for quantifying glacier thickness change. Cryosphere, 5(1), 271–290 (doi: 10.5194/tc-5-271-2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palazzi, E, von Hardenberg, J and Provenzale, A (2013) Precipitation in the Hindu Kush–Karakoram–Himalaya: observations and future scenarios. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 118, 85–100 (doi: 10.1029/2012JD018697)Google Scholar
Paul, F and Haeberli, W (2008) Spatial variability of glacier elevation changes in the Swiss Alps obtained from two digital elevation models. Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L21502 (doi: 10.1029/2008GL034718)Google Scholar
Paul, F, Huggel, C and Kääb, A (2004) Combining satellite multispectral image data and a digital elevation model for mapping debris covered glaciers. Remote Sens. Environ., 89, 510–518 (doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2003.11.007)Google Scholar
Paul, F and 24 others (2015) The glaciers climate change initiatives: methods for creating glacier area, elevation change and velocity products. Remote Sens. Environ., 162, 408–426 (doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2013.07.043)Google Scholar
Pelto, M (2011) Utility of late summer transient snowline migration rate on Taku Glacier, Alaska. Cryosphere, 5, 1127–1133 (doi: 10.5194/tc-5-1127-2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peters, J, Bolch, T, Buchroithner, MF and Bäßler, M (2010) Glacier surface velocities in the Mount Everest area/Nepal using ASTER and Ikonos imagery. Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on High Mountain Remote Sensing Cartography, Kathmandu, Nepal. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, 313–320 Google Scholar
Quincey, DJ and 6 others (2007) Early recognition of glacial lake hazards in the Himalaya using remote sensing datasets. Global Planet. Change, 56(1–2), 137–152 (doi: 10.1016/j.gloplacha. 2006.07.013)Google Scholar
Quincey, DJ, Luckman, A and Benn, D (2009) Quantification of Everest region glacier velocities between 1992 and 2002, using satellite radar interferometry and feature tracking. J. Glaciol., 55(192), 596–606 (doi: 10.3189/002214309789470987)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds, JM (2000) On the formation of supraglacial lakes on debris-covered glaciers. IAHS Publ. 264 (Symposium at Seattle 2000 – Debris-Covered Glaciers), 153–161 Google Scholar
Richardson, SD and Reynolds, JM (2000) An overview of glacial hazards in the Himalayas, Quat. Int., 65/66(1), 31–47 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Röhl, K (2008) Characteristics and evolution of supraglacial ponds on debris-covered Tasman Glacier, New Zealand. J. Glaciol., 54(188), 867–880 (doi: 10.3189/002214308787779861)Google Scholar
Rounce, DR and McKinney, DC (2014) Debris thickness of glaciers in the Everest area (Nepal Himalaya) derived from satellite imagery using a nonlinear energy balance model. Cryosphere, 8, 1317–1329 (doi: 10.5194/tc-81317-2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sakai, A and Fujita, K (2010) Formation conditions of supraglacial lakes on debris-covered glaciers in the Himalaya. J. Glaciol., 56(195), 177–181 (doi: 10.3189/002214310791190785)Google Scholar
Salerno, F, Buraschi, E, Bruccoleri, G, Tartari, G and Smiraglia, C (2008) Glacier surface-area changes in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal, in the second half of the 20th century, by comparison of historical maps. J. Glaciol., 54, 738–752 (doi: 10.3189/002214308786570926)Google Scholar
Salerno, F and 10 others (2010a) Experience with a hard and soft participatory modeling framework for social ecological system management in Mount Everest (Nepal) and K2 (Pakistan) protected areas. Mt. Res. Dev., 30, 80–93 (doi: 10.1659/MRDJOURNAL-D-10-00014.1)Google Scholar
Salerno, F and 18 others (2010b) Energy, forest, and indoor air pollution models for Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer zone, Nepal: implementation of a participatory modeling framework. Mt. Res. Dev., 30, 113–126 (doi: 10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-10-00027.1)Google Scholar
Salerno, F and 6 others (2012) Glacial lake distribution in the Mount Everest region: uncertainty of measurement and conditions of formation. Global Planet. Change, 92–93, 30–39 (doi: 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2012.04.001)Google Scholar
Salerno, F, Viviano, G, Manfredi, EC, Caroli, P, Thakuri, S and Tartari, G (2013) Multiple carrying capacities from a management-oriented perspective to operationalize sustainable tourism in protected area. J. Environ. Manage., 128, 116–125 (doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.04.043)Google Scholar
Salerno, F and 10 others (2015) Weak precipitation, warm winters and springs impact glaciers of south slopes of Mt Everest (central Himalaya) in the last 2 decades (1994–2013). Cryosphere, 9, 1229–1247 (doi: 10.5194/tc-9-1229-2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scherler, D, Leprince, S and Strecker, MR (2008) Glacier-surface velocities in alpine terrain from optical satellite imagery – accuracy improvement and quality assessment. Remote Sens. Environ., 112(10), 3806–3819 (doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2008.05.018)Google Scholar
Scherler, D, Bookhagen, B and Strecker, MR (2011) Spatially variable response of Himalayan glaciers to climate change affected by debris cover. Nature Geosci., 4, 156–159 (doi: 10.1038/NGEO1068)Google Scholar
Seko, K, Yabuki, H, Nakawo, M, Sakai, A, Kadota, T and Yamada, Y (1998) Changing surface features of Khumbu Glacier, Nepal Himalayas, revealed by SPOT images. Bull. Glacier Res., 16, 33–41 Google Scholar
Sharma, KP, Moore, B and Vorosmarty, CJ (2000) Anthropogenic, climatic, and hydrologic trends in the Kosi basin, Himalaya. Climatic Change, 47, 141–165 (doi: 10.1023/A:1005696808953)Google Scholar
Somos-Valenzuela, MA, McKinney, DC, Rounce, DR and Byers, AC (2014) Changes in Imja Tsho in the Mount Everest region of Nepal. Cryosphere, 8, 1661–1671 (doi: 10.5194/tc-8-1661-2014)Google Scholar
Tartari, G, Salerno, F, Buraschi, E, Bruccoleri, G and Smiraglia, C (2008) Lake surface area variations in the North-Eastern sector of Sagarmatha National Park (Nepal) at the end of the 20th century by comparison of historical maps. J. Limnol., 67, 139–154 Google Scholar
Thakuri, S and 6 others (2014) Tracing glacier changes since the 1960s on the south slope of Mt Everest (central Southern Himalaya) using optical satellite imagery. Cryosphere, 8, 1297–1315 (doi: 10.5194/tc-8-1297-2014)Google Scholar
Thompson, SS, Benn, DI, Dennis, K and Lukman, A (2012) A rapidly growing moraine-dammed glacial lake on Ngozumpa Glacier, Nepal. Geomorphology, 145–146, 1–11 (doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.08.015)Google Scholar
Toutin, T (2008) ASTER DEMs for geomatic and geoscientific applications: a review. Int. J. Remote Sens., 29, 1855–1875 (doi: 10.1080/01431160701408477)Google Scholar
Watanabe, T, Lamsal, D and Ives, JD (2009) Evaluating the growth characteristics of a glacial lake and its degree of danger of outburst flooding: Imja–Lhotse Shar glacier, Khumbu Himal, Nepal. Nor. Geogr. Tidssk./Nor. J. Geogr, 63, 255–267 Google Scholar
Willis, IC (1995) Intra-annual variations in glacier motion: a review. Progr. Phys. Geogr., 19(1), 61–106 (doi: 10.1177/030913339501900104)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yamada, T (1998) Glacier lake and its outburst flood in the Nepal Himalaya. (Monograph No. 1) Data Center for Glacier Research, Japanese Society of Snow and Ice, Tokyo Google Scholar
Yao, T and 14 others (2012) Different glacier status with atmospheric circulations in Tibetan Plateau and surroundings. Nature Climate Change, 2(9), 663–667 (doi: 10.1038/nclimate1580)Google Scholar