Hostname: page-component-65f69f4695-s676w Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-06-26T16:30:40.466Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The impending demise of the icon: A critique of the concept of iconic storage in visual information processing

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Ralph Norman Haber
Ralph Norman Haber
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, Chicago, Ill. 60680
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Without disputing the experimental evidence that subjects have available most of the content of brief displays for a fraction of a second, or that visual stimuli Persist after their physical termination for a similar time, I argue that this evidence is irrelevant to perception. Specifically, the notion of an icon as a brief storage of information persisting after stimulus termination cannot possibly be useful in any typical visual information-processing task except reading in a lightning storm. Since the visual world that provides the stimuli for perception is continuous and not chopped up by tachistoscopes, and since our eyes and heads are rarely motionless, no realistic circumstances exist in which having a frozen iconic storage of information could be helpful. Rather, the presence of such an icon interferes with perception. This paper examines instances of normal perception, and then reviews experimental evidence on temporal integration, saccadic suppression, masking, and the photoreceptor basis of visual persistence, to further demonstrate that a storage of excitation cannot be a useful device for storing information. Finally, I note that little would have to be changed in our theories of visual perception or information processing if we simply forgot all about the icon and iconic memory as an early stage of processing.

Keywords

ecological opticseye movementsiconic storageimageryinformation processingmaskingmemoryrepresentationspace perceptiontemporal integrationvisionvisual persistence

Information

Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 6 , Issue 1 , March 1983 , pp. 1 - 11
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1983

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Adelson, E. H. (1979) Visual persistence without the rods. Perception and Psychophysics 26:254–256. [WPB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adelson, E. H. & Jonides, J. (1980) The psychophysics of iconic storage. journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 6:486–493. [EHA. taRNH, GML]Google Scholar
Allman, J. M. (1977) Evolution of the visual system in early primates. Progress in Psychobiology and Physiological Psychology 7:1–53. [MEG]Google Scholar
Averbach, E. & Coriell, E. (1961) Short-term memory in vision. Bell System Technical Journal 40:309–328. [BGB, taRNH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Averbach, E. & Sperling, G. (1961) Short-term storage of information in vision. In: information theory, ed. Cherry, C.. Butterworths. [taRNH, GS]Google Scholar
Badcock, D. & Lovegrove, W. (1981) The effects of contrast, stimulus duration, and spatial frequency on visible persistence in normal and specifically disabled readers. journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 7:495–505. [GML, GEM]Google Scholar
Bahill, A. T., Clark, M. E. & Stark, L. (1975) Dynamic overshoot in saccadic eye movements is caused by neurological control signal reversals. Experimental Neurology 48:95–112. [BB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banks, W. P. (1977) Encoding and processing of symbolic informatiois in comparative judgements. In: The psychology of learning and motication, ed. Bower, G. H., vol. 11. Academic Press. [WPB]Google Scholar
Banks, W. P. & Barber, G. (1977) Color information in iconic memory. Psychological Reciew 84:536–546. [WPB]Google Scholar
Banks, W. P. & Barber, G. (1980) Normal iconic memory for stimuli invisible to the rods. Perception and Psychophysics 27:581–584. [WPB]Google Scholar
Baron, W. S., Boynton, R. M. & Hammon, R. W. (1979) Component analysis of the fovea1 local electroretinogram elicited with sinusoidal flicker. Vision Research 19:479–490. [EHA]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrand, A. G. (1979) An ecological approach to binocular perception: The neglected facts of occlusion. Dissertation Abstracts International 39:5604-B. [WMM]Google Scholar
Baxt, N. (1871) Ueber die Zeit welche nothig ist, damit ein Gesichtseindruck sum Bewusstsein kommt und über die Grösse (Extension) der bewussten Wahrnehmung bei einem Gesichtseindrucke von gegenbener Dauer. Pflugers Archiv 4:325–336. [GS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baylor, D. A. & Hodgkin, A. L. (1974) Changes in time scale and sensitivity in turtle photoreceptors. journal of Physiology 242:729–758. [EHA]Google Scholar
Bergen, J. R. & Julesz, B. (1981) Discrimination with brief inspection times. journal of the Optical Society of America 71:1570. [BJ]Google Scholar
Bowen, R. W., Pola, J. & Matin, L. (1974) Visual persistence: Effects of flash luminance, duration, and energy. Vision Research 14:295–303. [GML, JTLW]Google Scholar
Bowling, A. & Lovegrove, W. (1980) The effect of stimulus duration on the persistence of gratings. Perception doubt; Psychophysics 27:574–578. [GML]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowling, A. & Lovegrove, W. (1981) Two components to visible persistence: Effects of orientation and contrast. Vision Research 21:1241–1251 [GML]Google Scholar
Bowling, A. & Lovegrove, W. (1982) Iconic memory: Fallacies persist (?). Perception and Psychophysics 31:194–198. [GML]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowling, A.Lovegrove, W. J. & Mapperson, B. (1979) The effect of spatial frequency and contrast on visual persistence. Perception 8:529–539. [GEM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boynton, R. M. (1972) Discrimination of homogeneous double pulses of light. In: Handbook of sensory physiology: 7. Visual psychophysics, ed. Jameson, D. & Hurvich, L. M., pp. 202–232. Springer. [taRNH, JTLW]Google Scholar
Braddick, O. (1973) A short-range process in apparent motion. Vision Research 14:519–527. [WAP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braunstein, M. L. (1975) Depth perception through motion. Academic Press. [taRNH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breitmeyer, B. (1975) Simple reaction time as a measure of the temporal response properties of transient and sustained channels. Vision Research 15:1411–12. [AV]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breitmeyer, B. (1980) Unmasking visual masking: A look at the “why” behind the veil of the “how.” Psychological Review 87:52–69. [BGB, taRNH, GH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breitmeyer, B. (1980) (in press a) Sensory masking, persistence and enhancement in visual exploration and reading. In: Eye movements in reading: Perceptual and language processes, ed. Rayner, K.. Academic Press. [BGB]Google Scholar
Breitmeyer, B. (1980) (in press b) Visual masking: An integratice approach. Oxford University Press. [BGB]Google Scholar
Breitmeyer, B. G. & Ganz, L. (1976) Implications of sustained and transient channels for theories of visual pattern masking, saccadic suppression, and information processing. Psychological Review 83, 1–36. [DWM]Google Scholar
Breitmeyer, B. G., Kropfl, W. & Julesz, B. (in press) The existence and role of retimiotopic and spatiotopic forms of visual persistence. Acta Psychologica. [BGB, GH, BJ]Google Scholar
Bridgeman, B. (1980) Temporal response characteristics of cells in monkey striate cortex measured with metacontrast masking and brightness discrimination. Brain Research 196:347–364. [GEM]Google Scholar
Bridgeman, B., Hendry, D. & Stark, L. (1975) Failure to detect displacement of the visual world during saccadic eye movements. Vision Research 15:719–722. [BB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broadbent, D. E. (1958) Perception and communication. Pergamon Press. [taRN H]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, J. (1960) Evidence for a selective process during perception of tachistoscopically presented stimuli. Journal of Experimental Psychology 59:176–181. [DJKM]Google Scholar
Bruce, C. J. & Coldberg, M. E. (1981) Frontal eye fields in the monkey: Classification of neurons discharging before saccades. Neuroscience Abstracts 7:131. [MEG]Google Scholar
Bushnell, M. C., Goldberg, M. E. & Robinson, D. L. (1981) Behavioral enhancement of visual responses in monkey cerebral cortex: I. Modulation in posterior parietal cortex related to selective visual attention. journal of Neurophysiology 46:755–772. [MEG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butler, B. E. (1973) Components of the familiarity effect in tachistoscopic recognition. journal of Experimental Psychology 101:367–372. [DJKM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butler, B. E. (1974) The limits of selective attention in tachistoscopic recognition. Canadian journal of Psychology 28:199–213. [DJKM]Google Scholar
Butler, B. E. (1975) Selective attention and target search with brief visual displays. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 27:467–477. [DJKM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, B. E. (1980a) The category effect in visual search: Identification versus localization factors. Canadian journal of Psychology 34:238–247. [DJKM]Google Scholar
Butler, B. E. (1980b) Selective attention and stimulus localization in visual perception. Canadian Journal of Psychology 34:119–133. [DJKM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butler, B. E. (1981) Identification amid localization in tachistoscopic recognition: The effects of data- and resource-limitations. Canadian journal of Psychology 35:36–51. [DJKM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, F. W. & Wurtz, R. H. (1978) Saccadic omission: Why we do not see a grey-out during saccadic eye movement. Vision Research 18:1297–1304. [GEM]Google Scholar
Cole, R. A., ed. (1980) The perception and production of fluent speech. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [taRNH]Google Scholar
Coltheart, M. (1972) Visual information-processing. In: New horizons in psychology, vol. 2, ed. Dodwell, P. C.. Penguin. [MC]Google Scholar
Coltheart, M. (1975) Iconic memory: A reply to Professor Holding. Memory and Cognition 3:42–48. [MC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coltheart, M. (1980) Iconic memory and visual persistence. Perception and Psychophysics 27:183–228. [JA, WPB, BB, tarRNH, DHH, JJ, RLK, GML, DN, GS, JTLW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conrad, R. (1964) Acoustic confusions in immediate memory. British journal of Psychology 55:75–84. [GS]Google Scholar
Coŕen, S., Porac, C. & Ward, L. M. (1978). Sensation and perception. Academic Press. [SC]Google Scholar
Corfield, R., Frosdick, J. P. & Campbell, F. W. (1978) Grey-out elimination: The roles of spatial waveform, frequency and phase. Vision Research 18:1305–1312. [GEM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cornsweet, T. N. (1970) Visual perception. Academic Press. [DWM]Google Scholar
Craik, F. I. M. (1979) Human memory. Annual Review of Psychology 30:63–102. [GEM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davidson, M. L., Fox, M. J. & Dick, A. O. (1973) Effects of eye movements on backward masking and perceived location. Perception and Psychophysics 14:110–116. [EHA, WPB, BGB, BB, MEG, taRNH, DHH, JJ, WMM, DJKM, DN, KR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darwin, C. J., Turvey, M. T. & Crowder, R. G. (1972) The auditory analogue of the Sperling partial report procedure: Evidence for brief auditory storage. Cognitive Psychology 3:225–267. [taRNH]Google Scholar
Demkiw, P. & Michaels, C. (1976) Motion information in iconic memory. Acta Psychologica 40:257–264. [taRNH, WAP, JTLW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
doubt;ick, A. O. (1970) Visual processing and the use of redundant information in tachistoscopic recognition. Canadian Journal of Psychology 24:133–141. [DJKM]Google Scholar
doubt;ick, A. O. (1971) On the problem of selection in short-term visual (iconic) memory. Canadian journal of Psychology 25:250–263. [DJKM]Google Scholar
doubt;ick, A. O. (1972) Parallel and serial processing in tachistoscopic recognition: Two mechanisms. journal of Experimental Psychology 96:60–66. [DJKM]Google Scholar
Di, 'Lollo V. (1977) Temporal characteristics of iconic memory. Nature 267:241–243. [VDL, GEM]Google Scholar
Di, 'Lollo V. (1978) On the spatio-temporal interactions of brief visual displays. In: Studies in perception, ed. Day, R. H. & Stanley, G. V.. University of Western Australia Press. [VDL]Google Scholar
Di, 'Lollo V. (1980) Temporal integration in visual memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 109:75–97. [JA, SC, tarRNH, VDL, GEM]Google Scholar
Di, Lollo V., Lowe, D. G. & Scott, J. P. (1974) Temporal integration in visual memory. journal of Experimental Psychology 103:934–940. [DJKM]Google Scholar
Di, Lollo V. & Woods, E. (1981) Duration of visible persistence in relation to range of spatial frequencies. journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Peformance 7:754–769. [GEM]Google Scholar
Efron, R. (1970a) Effect of stimulus duration on perceptual onset and offset latencies. Perception and Psychophysics 8:231–234. [GML, JTLW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Efron, R. (1970b) The minimum duration of a perception. Neuropsychologia 8:57–63. [GS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Enroth-Cugell, C., Hertz, B. G. & Lennie, P. (1977) Convergence of rod and cone signals in the cat's retina. Journal of Physiology 269:297–318. [EHA]Google Scholar
Eriksen, C. W. & Collins, J. F. (1967) Some temporal characteristics of visimal pattern perceptioms. Journal of Experimental Psychology 74:476–484. [DHH, GS, JTLW]Google Scholar
Eriksen, C. W. & Schultz, D. W. (1978) Temporal factors in visual information processing: A tutorial review. In: Attention and performance, vol. 7, ed. Reguin, J., pp. 3–23. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [tarRNH, AV]Google Scholar
Erwin, D. E. (1976) Fumrther evidence for two components in visumal persistence. journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 2:191–209. [DHH]Google Scholar
Exner, S. (1868) Ueber die zu einer Gesichtswahrnehmung nöthige Zeit. Sitzungsbericht der Akademie der Wissenschaften Wien 58:601–633. [GS]Google Scholar
Felsten, G. & Wasserman, G. S. (1980) Visual masking: Mechanisms and theories. Psychological Bulletin 88:329–353. [GSW]Google Scholar
Felsten, G. & Wasserman, G. S. (1981) The photoreceptor sensory code for perceived duration during visual masking. Physiological Psychology 9:68–76. [GSW]Google Scholar
Fodor, J. S. & Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1981) How direct is visual perception?: Some reflections on Gibson's [Ecological Approach.] Cognition 9:139–196. [JA]Google Scholar
Freyd, J. J. & Finke, R. A. (1982) Representational momentum. Submitted for publication. [RAF]Google Scholar
Fuchs, A. F. (1976) The neurophysiology of saccades. In: Eye movements and psychological processes, ed. Monty, R. A. & Senders, J. W., pp. 39–53. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [BGB]Google Scholar
Ganz, L. (1975) Temporal factors in visual perception. In: Handbook of perception: 5. Seeing, ed. Carterette, E. C. & Friedman, M. P., pp. 169–232. Academic Press. [taRNH]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1966) The senses considered as perceptual systems. Houghton Mifflin. [taRNH, GJ, WMM, UN]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1976) Three kinds of distance that can be seen: Or, how Bishop Berkeley went wrong in the first place. In: Studies in perception: Festschrift for Fabio Metelli, ed. Arcais, G. B. Flores D'. Aldo Martello-Giunti. [WMM]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1979) The ecological approach to visual perception. Houghton Mufflin. [JA, taRNH, WMM]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J., Kaplan, G., Reynolds, H. N. & Wheeler, K. (1969) The change from visible to invisible: A study of optical transitions. Perception and Psychophysics 5:113–116. [WMM]Google Scholar
Goldberg, M. E. & Bruce, C. J. (1981) Frontal eye fields in the monkey: Eye movements remap the effective coordinates of visual stimuli. Neuroscience Abstracts 7:131. [MEG]Google Scholar
Goldberg, M. E. & Bushnell, M. C. (1981) Behavioral enhancement of visual responses in monkey cerebral cortex: 2. Modulation in frontal eye fields specifically related to saccades. Journal of Neurophysiology 46:773–787. [MEG]Google Scholar
Gross, C. G., Bender, D. B. & Mishkin, M. (1977) Contributions of the corpus callosum and the anterior commisure to visual activation of inferior temporal neurons. Brain Research 131:227–239. [GEM]Google Scholar
Guttman, N. & Julesz, B. (1963) Lower limits of auditory periodicity analysis. journal of the Acoustical Society of America 35:610. [BJ]Google Scholar
Hadoubt;er, R. N. (1969) Information processing approaches to visual perception: An introduction. In: Information processing approaches to visual perception, ed. Haber, B. N., pp. 1–15. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. [taRNH]Google Scholar
Haber, R. N. (1971) Where are the visions in visual perception? In: The adaptive function of imagery, ed. Segal, S. J.. Academic Press. [VDL]Google Scholar
Haber, R. N. (1974) Information processing. In: Handbook of perception: I. History and philosophical roots of perception, ed. Carterette, E. C. & Friedman, H. P., pp. 313–333. Academic Press. [taRNH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haber, R. N. (1979) Twenty years of haunting eidetic imagery: Where's the ghost? Behavioral doubt; Brain Sciences 2:583–594. [taRNH]Google Scholar
Haber, R. N. (1982) One hundred years of visual perception: An ahistorical perspective. In: A century of psychology as science: Retrospectives and assessments, ed. Koch, S. and Leary, D. E., in press. McGraw Hill. [tarRNH]Google Scholar
Haber, R. N. (1983) Stimulus information and processing mechanisms in visual space perception. In: Human and machine vision, ed. Beck, J. & Rosenfeld, A.. Academic Press. In press. [rRNH]Google Scholar
Haber, R. N. & Hershenson, M. (1980) The psychology of visual perception. 2nd ed.Holt, Rinehart & Winston. [tarRNH]Google Scholar
Haber, R. N. & Standing, L. G. (1969) Direct measures of short-term visual storage. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 21:43–54. [taRNH, DHH, DJKM, GS]Google Scholar
Haber, R. N. & Standing, L. G. (1970) Direct estimates of apparent duration of a flash followed by visual noise. Canadian journal of Psychology 24:216–229. [RLK, GSW, JTLW]Google Scholar
Hallett, P. E. & Lightstone, A. D. (1976) Saccadic eye movements to flashed targets. Vision Research 16:107–114. [MEG]Google Scholar
Hartline, H. K. (1938) The response of the single optic nerve fibres of the vertebrate eye to illumination of the retina. American Journal of Physiology 121:400–415. [JTLW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawkins, H. L. & Shulman, G. L. (1979) Two definitions of persistence in visual perception. Perception and Psychophysics 25:348–350. [GML]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hochberg, J. (1968) In the mind's eye. In: Contemporary theory and research in visual perception, ed. Haber, R. N., pp. 309–331. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. [BGB, taRNH, GH, JJ]Google Scholar
Hochberg, J. (1978) Perception. Prentice Hall. [GH]Google Scholar
Hoohberg, J. & Brooks, V. (1978) Perception in motion pictures. In: Handbook of perception, vol. 10, ed. Carterette, E. C. & Friedman, M. P., pp. 259–304. Academic Press. [rRNH]Google Scholar
Hogben, J. H. & Di, Lollo V. (1974) Perceptual integration and perceptual segregation of brief visual stimuli. Vision Research 14:1059–1069. [BJ, GS]Google Scholar
Hogben, J. H., Julesz, B. & Ross, J. (1976) Short-term memory for symmetry. Vision Research 16, no. 8:861–866. [BJ]Google Scholar
Holding, D. H. (1971) The amount seen in brief exposures. Quarterly journal of Experimental Psychology 23:72–81. [DHH]Google Scholar
Holding, D. H. (1972) Brief visual memory for English and Arabic letters. Psychonomic Science 28:241–242. [DHH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holding, D. H. (1975) Sensory storage reconsidered. Memory and Cognition 3:31–41. [DHH]Google Scholar
Ikeda, M. (1965) Temporal summation of positive and negative flashes in the visual system. Journal of the Optical Society of America 35:1527–1534. [BJ]Google Scholar
James, W. (1890) The principles of psychology, vol. 1. Henry Holt. [WMM]Google Scholar
Johansson, G. (1973) Visual perception of biological motion and a model for its analysis. Perception and Psychophysics 14:201–211. [GJ, WAP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johansson, G. (1975) Visual motion perception. Scientific American 232(6):76–88). [GJ]Google Scholar
Johansson, G. (1976) Spatio-temporal differentiation and integration in visual motion perception. Psychological Research 38:379–393. [GJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johansson, G. (1977) Spatial constancy and motion in visual perception. In: Spatial constancy and motion in visual perception, ed. Epstein, W.. Wiley. [GJ]Google Scholar
Johansson, G. (1979) Memory functions in visual event perception. In: Perspectives on memory research, ed. Nilsson, L.-G.. [GJ]Google Scholar
Jonides, J., Irwin, D. E. & Yantis, S. (1982) Integrating visual information from successive fixations. Science 215:192–194. [JA, WPB, BGB, BB, taRNH, JJ, WMM, DJKM, DN, KR]Google Scholar
Judge, S. J., Wurtz, R. H. & Richmond, B. J. (1980) Vision during saccadic eye movements: 1. Visual interactions in striate cortex. journal of Neurophysiology 43:1133–1155. [MEG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Julesz, B. (1964) Binocular depth perception without familiarity cues. Science 145:356–362.Google Scholar
Julesz, B. (1981) Textons, the elements of texture perception, and their interactions. Nature 290:91–97. [BJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Julesz, B. (1981) (in press) Adaptation in a peephole: A texton theory of preattentive vision. In: Sensory experience, adaptation and perception (Festschrift for lvo Kohler), ed. Spillman, L. & Wooten, B. R.. Erlbaum Associates. [BJ]Google Scholar
Julesz, B. & Bergen, J. R. (in press) Textons, the fundamental elements in preattentive vision and perception of textures. Bell System Technical journal. [BJ]Google Scholar
Julesz, B. & Chiarucci, H. (1973) Short-term memory for stroboscopic movement perception. Perception 2:249–260. [BJ]Google Scholar
Julesz, B. & Guttman, N. (1963) Auditory memory. journal of the Acoustical Society of America 35:1895. [BJ]Google Scholar
Kahneman, D. (1966) Time intensity reciprocity under various conditiomss of adaptation and backward masking. Journal of Experimental Psychology 71:543–49. [taRNH]Google Scholar
Kanizsa, G. (1979) Organization in vision. Praeger. [WMM]Google Scholar
Kaplan, G. (1969) Kinetic disruption of optical texture: The perception of depth at an edge. Perception and Psychophysics 6:193–198. [WMM]Google Scholar
Kaufman, J. (1978) Visual repetition detection. Ph. D. thesis, Department of Psychology, New York University. [GS]Google Scholar
Kelly, D. H. (1971) Theory of flicker and transient responses: II. Counterphase gratings. Journal of Optical Society of America 61:632–640. [EHA]Google Scholar
Klatzky, R. L. (1980) Human memory: Structures and processes. W. H. Freeman.Google Scholar
Kline, D. W. & Orme-Rogers, C. (1978) Examinations of stimulus persistence as the basis for superior visual identification performance among older adults. Journal of Gerontology 33:76–81. [GML]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Külpe, O. (1904) Versuche uber Abstraktion. In: Bericht über den erste Kongress für experimentelle Psychologie. Barth. [GS]Google Scholar
Latour, P. L. (1962) Visual threshold during eye movements. Vision Research 2:261–262. [taRNH]Google Scholar
Lee, D. N. (1971) Binocular stereopsis without spatial disparity. Perception and Psychophysics 9:216–218. [WMM]Google Scholar
Lee, D. N. & Reddish, P. (1981) Plummeting gannets: A paradigm of ecological optics. Nature 293:293–294. [WMM]Google Scholar
Lefton, L. A. (1973) Metacontrast: A review. Perception and Psychophysics 13:161–171. [taRNH]Google Scholar
Lefton, L. A. & Haber, R. N. (1974) Information extraction from different retinal locations. journal of Experimental Psychology 102:975–980. [taRNH]Google Scholar
Long, G. M. (1979) Comment on Hawkins and Shulman's Type I and Type II visual persistence. Perception and Psychophysics 26:412–414. [GML]Google Scholar
Long, G. M. (1980) Iconic memory: A review and critique of the study of short-term visual storage. Psychological Bulletin 88:785–820. [SC, tarRNH, DHH, GML, GS]Google Scholar
Long, G. M. (in press) Receptor interactions and visual persistence. Vision Research. [GML]Google Scholar
Long, G. M. & Beaton, R. J. (1982) The case for peripheral persistence: Effects of target and background luminance on a partial-report task. journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 8:383–391. [GML, DJKM]Google Scholar
Long, G. M. & Gildea, T. J. (1981) Latency for the perceived offset of brief target gratings. Vision Research 21:1395–1399. [GML]Google Scholar
Long, G. M. & McCarthy, P. H. (1982) Target energy effects on Type 1 and Type 2 visual persistence. Bulletin of time Psychonomic Society 19:219–221. [GML]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Long, G. M. & McCarthy, P. H. (in press) Rod persistence on a partial-report task with scotopic and photopic backgrounds. American journal of Psychology. [GML]Google Scholar
Long, G. M. & Sakitt, B. (1981) Differences between flicker and non-flicker persistence tasks: The cycles in a grating target. Vision Research 21:1387–1393. [GML]Google Scholar
Lovegrove, W. J., Bowling, A., Badcock, D. & Blackwood, M. (1980) Specific reading disability: Differences in contrast sensitivity as a function of spatial frequency. Science 210:439–440. [GEM]Google Scholar
Lovegrove, W. J., Heddle, M. & Slaghuis, W. L. (1980) Reading disability: Spatial frequency specific deficits in visual information store. Neuropsychologia 18:111–115. [GEM]Google Scholar
Lupker, S. J. & Massaro, D. W. (1979) Selective perception without confounding contributions of decision and memory. Perception and Psychophysics 25:60–69. [DWM]Google Scholar
Lupp, U., Hauske, G. & Wolf, W. (1976) Perceptual latencies to sinusoidal gratings. Vision Research 16:969–972. [GH, AV]Google Scholar
Lupp, U., Hauske, G. & Wolf, W. (1978) Different systems for the visual detection of high and low spatial frequencies. Photographic Science and Engineering 22:80–84. [GH]Google Scholar
Maas, J. B., producer. (1970) Motion perception: 1. Two-dimensional motion perception. Houghton Mufflin. (Film). [GJ]Google Scholar
Maas, J. B., (1971) Motion perception: 2. Three-dimensional motion perception. Houghton Mufflin. (Film). [GJ]Google Scholar
McConkie, G. W. & Rayner, K. (1976) Identifying the span of the effective stimulus in reading: Literature review and theories of reading. In: Theoretical models and processes of reading, ed. Singer, H. & Ruddell, R. B., pp. 137–162. International Reading Assocition. [KR]Google Scholar
McConkie, G. W. & Zola, D. (1979) Is visual information integrated across successive fixations in reading? Perception and Psychophysics 25:221–224. [KR]Google Scholar
McConkie, G. W., Zola, D. & Wolverton, G. S. (1980) How precise is eye guidance in reading? Paper presented at the American Educatiotsal Research Association, Boston, Mass., 04, 1980. [KR]Google Scholar
McEwen, W. K. (1962) Secretion of tears and blinking. In: The Eye: 3 Muscular mechanisms, ed. Davson, H., pp. 271–305. Academic Press. [taRNH]Google Scholar
Mack, A. (1970) An investigation of the relationship between eye and retinal image movement in the perception of movement. Perception and Psychophysics 8:291–298. [BB]Google Scholar
MacKay, D. M. (1976) Perceptual conflict between visual motion and change of location. Vision Research 16:557–558. [WMM]Google Scholar
Marr, D. (1976) Early processing of visual information. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, B 275:483–524. [JA]Google Scholar
Marr, D. (1980) Visual information processing: The structure and creation of visual representations. In: The psychology of vision, ed. Longuet-Higgins, H. C. & Sutherland, N. S.. Royal Society. [MC]Google Scholar
Marr, D. & Poggio, T. (1979) A computational theory of human stereo vision. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, B 204:301–329. [JA]Google Scholar
Massaro, D. W. (1975) Experimental psychology and information processing. Rand McNally. [DWM]Google Scholar
Massaro, D. W. (1979) Reading and listening (tutorial paper). In: Processing of visible language, ed. Kolers, P. A., Wrolstad, M. & Bouma, H., vol. 1, pp. 331–354. Plenum Press. [DWM]Google Scholar
Mays, L. E. & Sparks, D. L. (1980) Dissociation of visual and saccade-related responses in superior colliculus neurons. journal of Neurophysiology 43:207–232. [MEG]Google Scholar
Merikle, P. M. (1980) Selection from visual persistence by perceptual groups and category membership. journal of Experimental Psychology: General 109:279–295. [DJKM, GEM]Google Scholar
Metelli, F. (1974) The perception of transparency. Scientific American 230 (04):90–98. [WMM]Google Scholar
Mewhort, D. J. K. (1967) Familiarity of letter sequences, response uncertainty and the tachistoscopic recognition experiment. Canadian journal of Psychology 21:309–321.Google Scholar
(Also in: Information-processing approaches to visual perception, ed. Haber, R. N., pp. 353–361. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968. [DJKM]Google Scholar
Mewhort, D. J. K. & Campbell, A. J. (1978) Processing spatial information and the selective-masking effect. Perception and Psychophysics 24:93–100. [DJKM]Google Scholar
Mewhort, D. J. K. & Campbell, A. J. (1981) Toward a model of skilled reading: An analysis of performance in tachistoscopic tasks. In: Reading research: Advances in theory and practice, vol. 3, ed. MacKinnon, G. E. & Waller, T. C., pp. 39–118. Academic Press. [DJKM]Google Scholar
Mewhort, D. J. K., Campbell, A. J., Marchetti, F. M. & Campbell, J. I. D. (1981) Identification, localization, and “iconic memory”: An evaluation of the bar-probe task. Memory and Cognition 9:50–67. [RLK, DJKM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mewhort, D. J. K., Marchetti, F. M., Gurnsey, R. & Campbell, A. J. (1982) Information persistence: A dual-buffer model for initial visual processing. Tenth International Symposium on Attention and Performance, Venlo, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Mewhort, D. J. K., Merikle, P. M. & Bryden, M. P. (1969) On the transfer from iconic to short-term memory. journal of Experimental Psychology 81:89–94. [DJKM]Google Scholar
Meyer, G. E. & Maguire, W. M. (1977) Spatial frequency and the mediation of short-term visual storage. Science 198:524–525. [GML, GEM]Google Scholar
Michaels, C. F. & Carello, C. (1981) Direct perception. Prentice-Hall. [BGB, VDL]Google Scholar
Michaels, C. F. & Turvey, M. T. (1979) Central sources of visual masking: Indexing structures supporting seeing at a single, brief glance. Psychological Research 41:1–61. [BGB]Google Scholar
Michotte, A., Thinès, G. & Crabbé, G. (1964) Les compléments amodaux des structures perceptives. In: Studia Psychologica. Publications de I'Université de Louvain. [WMM]Google Scholar
Miller, G. A. (1956) The magical number, plus or minus two: Somne limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review 63:81–97. [BJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitov, D. (1976) Spatial frequency and recognition time. In: Information processing in visual system: Proceedings of the IV symposium on sensory system physiology, ed. Glezer, V. D., pp. 142–146. Leningrad: Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Scientific Council of Combined Problems of Physiology of Man and Animals, I. P. Pavlov Institute. In Russian. [AV]Google Scholar
Mitov, D. (1982) Temporal characteristics of complex grating discrimination. Perception 11:A25. [AV]Google Scholar
Morgan, M. J. (1977) Differential visual persistence between the two eyes: A model for the Fertsch-Pulfrich effect. journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 3:484–495. [GML]Google Scholar
Naylor, H. (1980) Reading disability and lateral asymnmetry: An information- processing analysis. Psychological Bulletin 87:531–545. [GEM]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1967) Cognitive psychology. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [tarRN H, GJ, JJ, BJ, RLK, DJKM, UN, GS]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1976) Cognition and reality. Freeman. [BGB, taRNH, JJ, UN]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1981) Personal communication. [taRNH]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. & Becklen, R. (1975) Selective looking: Attending to visually specified events. Cognitive Psychology 7:480–494. [SC]Google Scholar
O'Regan, J. K. (1981) The convenient viewing position hypothesis. In: Eye movements: Cognition and visual perception, ed. Fisher, D. F., Monty, R. A. & Senders, J. W.. Erlbaum. [KR]Google Scholar
Phillips, W. A. (1974) On the distinction between sensory storage and short-term visual memory. Perception and Psychophysics 16:283–290. [WAP]Google Scholar
Phillips, W. A. & Singer, W. (1974) Function and interaction of on and off transients in vision: 1. Psychophysics. Experimental Brain Research 19:493–506. [WAP, JTLW]Google Scholar
Podvigin, N. F. & Shelepin, Yu. E. (1981) Visual illusions induced by moving patterns. Sechenov Physiological Journal of the U.S.S.R., 67:223–227. [AV]Google Scholar
Posner, M. I. & Shulman, C. L. (1979) Cognitive science. In: The first century of experimental psychology, ed. Hearst, E.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [taRNH]Google Scholar
Rayner, K., Inhoff, A. W., Morrison, P. E., Slowiaczek, M. L. & Bertera, J. H. (1981) Masking of foveal and parafoveal vision during eye fixations in reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology 7:167–79. [MC]Google Scholar
Rayner, K., McConkie, G. W. & Ehrlich, S. (1978) Eye movements and integrating information across fixations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 4:529–544. [KR]Google Scholar
Raýner, K., McConkie, G. W. & Zola, D. (1980) Integrating information across eye movements. Cognitive Psychology 12:206–226. [DJKM, KR]Google Scholar
Riggs, L. A. (1976) Saccadic suppression of phosphenes: Proof of neural basis for saccadic suppression. In: Eye Movements and Psychological Processes, ed. Monty, R. A. & Senders, J. W., pp. 85–100. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [taRNH]Google Scholar
Ritter, M. (1976) Evidence for visual persistence during saccadic movcmncnts. Psychological Research 39:67–85. [BGB, JJ]Google Scholar
Robinson, D. L., Goldberg, M. E. & Stanton, G. B. (1978) Parietal association cortex in the primate: Sensory mechanisms and behavioral modulations. journal of Neurophysiology 41:910–932. [MEG]Google Scholar
Ross, J. & Hogben, J. H. (1974) Short-term memory in stereopsis. Vision Research 14:1195–1201. [BJ]Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D. W. (1970) A multicomponent theory of the perception of briefly-exposed visual displays. journal of Mathematical Psychology 7:191–218. [DWM]Google Scholar
Sakata, H., Shibutani, H. & Kawano, K. (1980) Spatial properties of visual fixation neurons in posterior parietal association cortex of the monkey. journal of Neurophysiology 43:1654–1672. [MEG]Google Scholar
Sakitt, B. (1975) Locus of short-term visual storage. Science 190:395–403. [WPB, taRNH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sakitt, B. (1976) Iconic memory. Psychological Review 83:257–276. [WPB, SC, taRNH, GS]Google Scholar
Saucer, R. T. (1953) The nature of perceptual processes. Science 117:556–558. [WMM]Google Scholar
Saucer, R. T. (1954) Processes of motion perception. Science 120:806–807. [WMM]Google Scholar
Schlag, J., Schlag-Rey, M., Peck, C. K. & Joseph, J. P. (1980) Visual responses of thalamic neurons depending on the direction of gaze and the position of targets in space. Experimental Brain Research 40:170–184. [MEG]Google Scholar
Schultz, D. W. & Eriksen, C. W. (1977) Do noise masks terminate target processing? Memory and Cognition 5:90–96. [GSW]Google Scholar
Schulz, T. (1980) Iconic memory – an artifact of perceptual reconstruction processes? Psychological Research 42:275–294. [GEM]Google Scholar
Seyler, A. J. & Budrikis, Z. L. (1959) Measurement of temporal adaptation to detail vision. Nature 184:1215–1217. [GH, AV]Google Scholar
Shaw, R. E. & Pittenger, J. (1978) Perceiving change. in: Modes of perceiving, ed. Pick, H. & Saltzman, E.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, [WMM]Google Scholar
Shepard, R. N. & Zare, S. L. (1982) Path-guided apparent motion. Submitted for publication. [RAF]Google Scholar
Singer, W. & Phillips, W. A. (1974) Function and interaction of on and off transients in vision: 2. Neurophysiology. Experimental Brain Research 19:507–521. [WAP]Google Scholar
Sperling, G. (1960) The information available in brief visual presentations. Psychological Monographs 74, no. 11 (whole no. 498). [JA, MC, taRNH, BJ, CML, DJKM, WRU, GS]Google Scholar
Sperling, G. (1963) A model for visual memory tasks. Human Factors 5:19–31. [taRNH, GS]Google Scholar
Sperling, G. (1967) Successive approximations to a model for short-term memory. Acta Psychologica 27:285–292. [tarRNH, GS]Google Scholar
Sperling, G. & Kaufman, J. (1978) Three kinds of visual short-term memory. Unpublished talk presented at Eighth International Symposium on Attention and Performance, Princeton, N.J. [GS]Google Scholar
Sperling, G. & Speelman, R. G. (1970) Acoustic similarity and auditory short- term memory: Experiments and a model. In: Models of human memory, ed. Norman, D. A.. Academic Press. [GS]Google Scholar
Steinman, R. M. (1976) Role of eye movements in maintaining a phenomenally clear and stable world. In: Eye movements and psychological processes, ed. Monty, B. A. & Senders, J. W., pp. 121–150. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [taRNH]Google Scholar
Steinman, R. M. & Collewijn, H. (1980) Binocular retinal image motion during active head rotation. Vision Research 20:415–429. [EHA]Google Scholar
Sternberg, S. (1969) The discovery of processing stages: Extensions of Donder's method. Acta Psychologica 30:276–315. [GS]Google Scholar
Todd, J. (1981) Visual information about moving objects. journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 7:795–810. [WMM]Google Scholar
Treisman, A., Russell, R. & Green, J. (1975) Brief visual storage of shape and movement. In: Attention and performance, vol. 5, ed. Rabbitt, P. M. A. & Dornic, S., pp. 699–721. Academic Press. [taRNH, WAP, JTLW]Google Scholar
Turvey, M. T. (1973) On peripheral and central processes in vision:Inferences from an information processing analysis of masking with patterned stimuli. Psychological Review 80:1–52. [DWM]Google Scholar
Turvey, M. T. (1977a) Contrasting orientations to a theory of visual information processing. Psychological Review 84:67–88. [WPB, BGB, taRNH]Google Scholar
Turvey, M. T. (1977b) Preliminaries to a theory of action with reference to vision. In:Perceiving, acting, and knowing, ed. Shaw, R. E. & Bransford, J.. Erlbaum. [VDL]Google Scholar
Turvey, M. T. (1978) Visual processing and short-term memory. In: Handbook of learning and cognitive processes, vol. 5, ed. Estes, W. K.. Erlbaum. [VDL]Google Scholar
Tyler, C. W. (1973) Temporal characteristics in apparent movement. Quarterly journal of Experimental Psychology 25:182–192. [WMM]Google Scholar
Tynan, P. & Sekuler, R. (1975) Moving visual phantoms: A new contour completion effect. Science 188:951–952. [WMM]Google Scholar
Vassilev, A. & Mitov, D. (1976) Perception time and spatial frequency. Vision Research 16:89–92. [AV]Google Scholar
Volkmann, F. C., Riggs, L. A. & Moore, R. K. (1980) Eyeblinks and visual suppression. Science 207:900–02. [taRNH]Google Scholar
von, Wright J. M. (1968) Selections in visual immediate memory. Quarterly journal of Experimental Psychology 20:62–68. [DJKM]Google Scholar
von, Wright J. M. (1970) On selection in visual immediate memory. Acta Psychologia 33:280–292. [DJKM]Google Scholar
Wagner, H. (1982) Flow-field variables trigger landing in flies. Nature 297:147–148. [WMM]Google Scholar
Weisstein, N. & Harris, C. (1980) Masking and the unmasking of distributed representations in the visual system. In: Visual coding and adaptability, ed. Harris, C. S.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [WMM]Google Scholar
White, C. W.Visual masking during pursuit eye movements. (1976) journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 2:469–478. [WPB, BGB]Google Scholar
Wilson, J. T. L. (1981) Visual persistence at both onset and offset of stimulation. Perception and Psychophysics 30:353–356. [WAP, JTLW]Google Scholar
Wilson, J. T. L. & Phillips, W. A. (1980) Event perception as a function for visual sensory storage. Paper presented at the Third European conference on Visual Perception, Brighton. [WAP]Google Scholar
Wingfield, A. & Byrnes, D. L. (1981) The psychology of human memory. Academic Press. [GEM]Google Scholar
Wolf, W., Hauske, G. & Lupp, U. (1978) How presaccadic gratings modify postsaccadic modulation transfer function. Vision Research 18:1173–1179. [GH, JJ]Google Scholar
Wolf, W., Hauske, G. & Lupp, U. (1980) Interaction of pre- and postsaccadic patterns having the same coordinates in space. Vision Research 20:117–125. [GH, JJ, KR]Google Scholar
Zeki, S. M. (1978) Uniformity and diversity of structure and function in the rhesus monkey prestriate cortex. journal of Physiology (London) 277:227–244. [MEG]Google Scholar