Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-cfpbc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-17T06:57:14.867Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Review of the Theoretical, Empirical, and Clinical Status of Adaptive and Maladaptive Perfectionism

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 April 2013

Alice Lo  and
Maree J. Abbott
Alice Lo*
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
Maree J. Abbott
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
*
Address for correspondence: Alice Lo, School of Psychology, Brennan MacCallum Building (A18), The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. Email: allo6448@uni.sydney.edu.au
Get access

Abstract

Clinical perfectionism has been implicated as a transdiagnostic construct involved in the aetiology, maintenance, and course of a wide range of Axis I disorders. Typically characterised by the setting of unrealistically high standards for performance, perfectionism has been suggested to be associated with a number of negative psychological outcomes. Moreover, it has been suggested that the process in which perfectionists set and strive for their high performance standards, including the way in which they revaluate such standards, may be maintained by a number of maladaptive cognitive, affective, and behavioural constructs. However, how such factors may differ across adaptive and maladaptive dimensions of perfectionism remains unclear. This article reviews the adaptive and maladaptive conceptualisations of perfectionism and critically examines the empirical literature pertaining to the cognitive-behavioural model of clinical perfectionism. In addition, we also review outcomes of intervention studies that have focused on altering dysfunctional cognitions when treating clinical perfectionism. Clinical implications of these findings and directions for future research are also explored.

Keywords

clinical perfectionismcognitive processesliterature reviewtreatment
Type
Standard Papers
Information
Behaviour Change , Volume 30 , Issue 2 , June 2013 , pp. 96 - 116
Copyright
Copyright © The Authors 2013

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Arpin-Cribbie, C.A., Irvine, J., Ritvo, P., Cribbie, R.A., Flett, G.L., & Hewitt, P.L. (2008). Perfectionism and psychological distress: A modeling approach to understanding their therapeutic relationship. Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 26, 151–167. doi:10.1007/s10942-007-0065-2Google Scholar
Antony, M.M., Purdon, C.L., Huta, V., & Swinson, R.P. (1998). Dimensions of perfectionism across anxiety disorders. Behavior Research and Therapy, 36, 1143–1154. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00083-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Antony, M.M., & Swinson, R.P. (1998). When perfect isn't good enough: Strategies for coping with perfectionism. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.Google Scholar
Ashby, J., & Kottman, T. (1996). Inferiority as a distinction between adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism. Individual Psychology, 52. 237–245.Google Scholar
Ashby, J., & Rice, K.G. (2002). Perfectionism, dysfunctional attitudes, and self-esteem: A structural equations analysis. Journal of Counseling & Development, 80, 197–203. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2002.tb00183.xGoogle Scholar
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191Google Scholar
Beck, A.T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: International Universities Press.Google Scholar
Besser, A., Flett, G.L., & Hewitt, P.L. (2004). Perfectionism, cognition, and affect in response to performance failure vs. success. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive Behavior Therapy, 22, 301–328. doi:10.1023/B:JORE.0000047313.35872.5cGoogle Scholar
Besser, A., Flett, G.L., Hewitt, P.L., & Guez, J. (2008). Perfectionism, and cognitions, affect, self-esteem, and physiological reactions in a performance situation. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 26, 206–228. doi:10.1007/s10942-007-0067-0Google Scholar
Bieling, P.J., Israeli, A.L., Smith, J., & Antony, M.M. (2003). Making the grade: The behavioural consequences of perfectionism in the classroom. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 163–178. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00173-3Google Scholar
Blankstein, K.R., Flett, G.L., Hewitt, P.L., & Eng, A. (1993). Dimensions of perfectionism and irrational fears: An examination with the Fear Survey Schedule. Personality and Individual Differences, 15, 323–328. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(93)90223-PCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burns, D.D. (1980). The perfectionist's script for self-defeat. Psychology Today, 14, 34–52.Google Scholar
Chang, E.C., Watkins, A.F., & Banks, K.H. (2004). How adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism relate to positive and negative psychological functioning: Testing a stress-mediation model in black and white female college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 93–102. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.51.1.93Google Scholar
Conroy, D.E., Kaye, M.P., & Fifer, A.M. (2007). Cognitive links between fear of failure and perfectionism. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 25, 237–253. doi:10.1007/s10942-007-0052-7Google Scholar
Conroy, D.E., Willow, J.P., & Metzler, J.N. (2002). Multidimensional fear of failure measurement: The performance failure appraisal inventory. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 76–90. doi:10.1080/10413200252907752Google Scholar
Demaria, T.P., Kassinove, H., & Dill, C.A. (1989). Psychometric properties of the Survey of Personal Beliefs: A rational-emotive measure of irrational thinking. Journal of Personality Assessment, 53, 329–341. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa5302_10Google Scholar
Dunkley, D.M., Zuroff, D.C., & Blankstein, K.R. (2003). Self-critical perfectionism and daily affect: Dispositional and situational influences on stress and coping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 234–252. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.234CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Egan, S.J., Wade, T.D., & Shafran, R. (2011). Perfectionism as a transdiagnostic process: A clinical review. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 203–212. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.04.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, A. (1962). Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. New York: Lyle Stuart.Google Scholar
Ellis, A. (2002). The role of irrational beliefs in perfectionism. In Flett, G.L. & Hewitt, P.L. (Eds.), Perfectionism: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 217–229). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Endler, N.S., Edwards, J.M., & Vitelli, R. (1991). Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scales (EMAS): Manual. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
Endler, N.S., Edwards, J.M., Vitelli, R., & Parker, J.D.A. (1989). Assessment of state and trait anxiety: Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scales. Anxiety Research, 2, 1–14. doi:0.1080/08917778908249322Google Scholar
Flett, G.L., Besser, A., Davis, R.A., & Hewitt, P.L. (2003). Dimensions of perfectionism, unconditional self-acceptance, and depression. Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 21, 119–138. doi:10.1023/A:1025051431957Google Scholar
Flett, G.L., & Hewitt, P.L. (2002). Perfectionism and maladjustment: An overview of theoretical, definitional, and treatment issues. In Flett, G.L. & Hewitt, P.L. (Eds.), Perfectionism: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 5–31). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Flett, G.L., & Hewitt, P.L. (2008). Treatment interventions for perfectionism — A cognitive perspective: Introduction to the special issue. Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive Behavior Therapy, 26, 127–133. doi:10.1007/s10942-007-0063-4Google Scholar
Flett, G.L., Hewitt, P.L., Blankstein, K.R., & Gray, L. (1998). Psychological distress and the frequency of perfectionistic thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1363–1381. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.5.1363Google Scholar
Flett, G.L., Hewitt, P.L., Blankstein, K.R., & Koledin, S. (1991a). Dimensions of perfectionism and irrational thinking. Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive Behavior Therapy, 9, 185–201. doi:10.1007/BF01061229Google Scholar
Flett, G.L., Hewitt, P.L., Blankstein, K., & Mosher, S.W. (1991b). Perfectionism, self-actualization, and personal adjustment. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 6, 147–160.Google Scholar
Flett, G.L., Hewitt, P.L., Blankstein, K.R., & O'Brien, S. (1991c). Perfectionism and learned resourcefulness in depression and self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 61–68. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(91)90132-UCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flett, G.L., Hewitt, P.L., Endler, N.S., & Tassone, C. (1995). Perfectionism and components of state and trait anxiety. Current Psychology: Developmental-Learning Personality-Social, 13, 326–350. doi:10.1007/BF02686891CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flett, G.L., Hewitt, P.L., Whelan, T., & Martin, T.R. (2007). The Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory: Psychometric properties and associations with distress and deficits in cognitive self-management. Journal of Rational-Emotive Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 25, 255–277. doi:10.1007/s10942-007-0055-4Google Scholar
Flett, G.L., Madorsky, D., Hewitt, P.L., & Heisel, M.J. (2002). Perfectionism cognitions, rumination, and psychological distress. Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive Behavior Therapy, 20, 33–47. doi:10.1023/A:1015128904007Google Scholar
Flett, G.L., Russo, F.A., & Hewitt, P.L. (1994). Dimensions of perfectionism and constructive thinking as a coping response. Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 12, 163–179. doi:10.1007/BF02354594CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frost, R.O., Heimberg, R.G., Holt, C.S., Mattia, J.I., & Neubauer, A.L. (1993). A comparison of two measures of perfectionism. Personality and Individual Differences, 14, 119–126. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(93)90181-2Google Scholar
Frost, R.O., & Marten, P.A. (1990). Perfectionism and evaluative threat. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 559–572. doi:10.1007/BF01173364Google Scholar
Frost, R.O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 449–468. doi:10.1007/BF01172967Google Scholar
Ganske, K., & Ashby, J.S. (2007). Multidimensional perfectionism and career decision making self-efficacy. Journal of Employment Counselling, 44, 17–28. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1920.2007.tb00021.xGoogle Scholar
Grzegorek, J.L., Slaney, R.B., Franze, S., & Rice, K.R. (2004). Self-criticism, dependency, self-esteem, and grade-point average satisfaction among clusters of perfectionists and nonperfectionists. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 192–200. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.51.2.192Google Scholar
Halmi, K.A., Sunday, S.P., Strober, M., Kaplan, A., Woodside, D.B., Fichter, M., . . . Kaye, W.H. (2000). Perfectionism in anorexia nervosa: Variation by clinical subtype, obsessionality, and pathological eating behavior. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1799–1805. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.157.11.1799Google Scholar
Hamachek, D.E. (1978). Psychodynamics of normal and neurotic perfectionism. Psychology, 15, 27–33.Google Scholar
Hart, B.A., Gilner, F.H., Handal, P.J., & Gfeller, J.D. (1998). The relationship between perfectionism and self-efficacy. Personality and Individual Differences, 24, 109–113. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(97)00116-5Google Scholar
Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1990). Dimensions of perfectionism and depression: A multidimensional analysis. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 5, 423–438.Google Scholar
Hewitt, P.L., & Flett, G.L. (1991a). Dimensions of perfectionism in unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 98–101. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.100.1.98Google Scholar
Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1991b). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456–470. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.456Google Scholar
Hewitt, P.L., Mittelstaedt, W., & Wollert, R. (1989). Validation of a measure of perfectionism. Journal of Personality Assessment, 53, 133–144. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa5301_14Google Scholar
Higgins, E.T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319–340.Google Scholar
Hollender, M.H. (1965). Perfectionism. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 6, 94–103. doi:10.1016/S0010-440X(65)80016-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R.G. (1969). A factorial measure of Ellis’ irrational belief system, with personality and maladjustment correlates (Unpublished dissertation). Texas Technical College, TX.Google Scholar
Kassinove, H. (1986). Self-reported affect and core irrational thinking: A preliminary analysis. Journal of Rational-Emotive Therapy, 4, 119–130. doi:10.1007/BF01074170Google Scholar
Kobori, O., Hayakawa, M., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Do perfectionists raise their standards after success? An experimental examination of the revaluation of standard setting in perfectionism. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 40, 515–521. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2009.07.003Google Scholar
Kutlesa, N., & Arthur, N. (2008). Overcoming negative aspects of perfectionism through group treatment. Journal of Rational-Emotive Therapy and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 26, 134–150. doi:10.1007/s10942-007-0064-3Google Scholar
LoCicero, K.A., & Ashby, J.S. (2000). Multidimensional perfectionism in middle school age gifted students. Roeper Review, 22, 182–184. doi:10.1080/02783190009554030Google Scholar
Martin, T.R., Flett, G.L., Hewitt, P.L., Krames, L., & Szanto, G. (1996). Personality correlates of depression and healthy symptoms: A test of a self-regulation model. Journal of Research in Personality, 31, 264–277. doi:10.1006/jrpe.1996.0017CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pacht, A.R. (1984). Reflections on perfection. American Psychologist, 39, 386–390. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.39.4.386Google Scholar
Periasamy, S., & Ashby, J.S. (2002). Multidimensional perfectionism and locus of control: Adaptive vs. maladaptive perfectionism. Journal of College Student Therapy, 17, 75–86.Google Scholar
Preusser, K., Rice, K., & Ashby, J. (1994). The role of self-esteem in mediating the perfectionism-depression connection. Journal of College Student Development, 35, 88–93.Google Scholar
Rice, K.G., Slaney, R., & Ashby, J. (1998). Self-esteem as a mediator between perfectionism and depression: A structural equations analysis. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 45, 304–314. doi:10.1037//0022-0167.45.3.304Google Scholar
Rice, K.G., & Slaney, R.B. (2002). Clusters of perfectionists: Two studies of emotional adjustment and academic achievement. Measurement and Evaluation in Counselling and Development, 35, 35–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Effficacy Scale. In Weinman, J., Wright, S., & Johnston, M. (Eds.), Measures in health psychology: A user's portfolio. Causal and control beliefs (pp. 35–37). Windsor, UK: NFER-Nelson.Google Scholar
Seo, E.H. (2008). Self-efficacy as a mediator in the relationship between self-oriented perfectionism and academic procrastination. Social Behavior and Personality, 36, 753–764. doi:10.2224/sbp.2008.36.6.753CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shafran, R., Cooper, Z., & Fairburn, C.G. (2002). Clinical perfectionism: A cognitive behavioural analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 773–791. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00059-6Google Scholar
Shafran, R., Egan, S., & Wade, T. (2010). Overcoming perfectionism: A self-help guide using cognitive behavioural techniques. London: Constable & Robinson.Google Scholar
Shafran, R., & Mansell, W. (2001). Perfectionism and psychopathology: A review of research and treatment. Clinical Psychology Review, 21, 879–905. doi:10.1016/S02727358(00)00072-6Google Scholar
Sherer, M., Maddox, J.E., Mercandante, B., Prentice-Dunn, S., Jacobs, B., & Rogers, R.W. (1982). The Self-Efficacy Scale: Construction and validation. Psychological Reports, 51, 663–671.Google Scholar
Skinner, B.F. (1968). Contingencies of reinforcement: A theoretical analysis. New York: Appleton Century Crofts.Google Scholar
Slade, P.D., & Owens, R.G. (1998). A dual process model of perfectionism based on reinforcement theory. Behavior Modification, 22, 372–390. doi:10.1177/01454455980223010Google Scholar
Slaney, R.B., Ashby, J.S., & Trippi, J. (1995). Perfectionism: Its measurement and career relevance. Journal of Career Assessment, 3, 279–297. doi:10.1177/106907279500300403Google Scholar
Slaney, R.B., & Johnson, D.G. (1992). The Almost Perfect Scale. Unpublished manuscript, Pennsylvania State University.Google Scholar
Slaney, R.B., Mobley, M., Trippi, J., Ashby, J.S., & Johnson, D. (1996). The Almost Perfect Scale—Revised. Unpublished manuscript, the Pennsylvania State University.Google Scholar
Slaney, R.B., Rice, K.G., & Ashby, J.S. (2002). A programmatic approach to measuring perfectionism: The Almost Perfect Scales. In Flett, G.L. & Hewitt, P.L. (Eds.), Perfectionism: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 63–88). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Slaney, R.B., Rice, K.G., Mobley, M., Trippi, J., & Ashby, J.S. (2001). The Revised Almost Perfect Scale. Measurement and Evaluation in Counselling and Development, 34, 130–145.Google Scholar
Smith, T.W. (1982). Irrational beliefs in the cause and treatment of emotional distress: A critical review of the rational emotive model. Clinical Psychology Review, 2, 505–522. doi:10.1016/0272-7358(82)90027-7Google Scholar
Smith, T.W., Boaz, T.L., & Denney, D.R. (1984). Endorsement of irrational beliefs as a moderator of the effects of stressful life events. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 8, 363–370. doi:10.1007/BF01173311Google Scholar
Stoeber, J., Chesterman, D., & Tarn, T.A. (2010). Perfectionism and task performance: Time on task mediates the perfectionistic strivings-performance relationship. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 458–462. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.11.02Google Scholar
Stoeber, J., Hutchfield, J., & Wood, K.V. (2008). Perfectionism, self-efficacy, and aspiration level: Differential effects of perfectionistic striving and self-criticism after success and failure. Personality and Individual Differences, 45, 323–327. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.04.021Google Scholar
Stoeber, J., & Otto, K. (2006). Positive conceptions of perfectionism: Approaches, evidence, challenges. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 295–319. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_2Google Scholar
Sutandar-Pinnock, K., Woodside, D.B., Carter, J.C., Olmsted, M.P., & Kaplan, A.S. (2003). Perfectionism in anorexia nervosa: A 6–24-month follow-up study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 33, 225–229. doi:10.1002/eat.10127Google Scholar
Terry-Short, L.A., Owens, R.G., Slade, P.D., & Dewey, M.E. (1995). Positive and negative perfectionism. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 663–668. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(94)00192-UGoogle Scholar
Wolpe, J., & Lang, P.J. (1964). Fear Survey Schedule for use in behaviour therapy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 9, 401–410. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(64)90051-8Google Scholar