Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-sxzjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-18T02:52:24.476Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

How social norms are often a barrier to addressing climate change but can be part of the solution

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 August 2020

GREGG SPARKMAN ,
LAUREN HOWE  and
GREG WALTON
GREGG SPARKMAN*
Affiliation:
Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
LAUREN HOWE
Affiliation:
University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
GREG WALTON
Affiliation:
Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
*
*Correspondence to: Andlinger Center for Energy and Environment, 86 Olden St, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA. E-mail: greggrs@princeton.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We argue that the behavioral challenges posed by climate change are fundamentally problems of social influence. Behaviors that perpetuate climate change are often opaque in their consequences; thus, we look to others to infer how to act. Yet unsustainable behaviors, like driving and eating meat, are often the norm; conformity to such norms is a major hurdle to a more sustainable world. Nonetheless, we argue that social norms can also be a powerful lever for positive change. Drawing on two streams of recent research, we show that well-implemented social norm strategies can motivate positive steps even in the face of a negative current norm and even in individuals’ private behavior absent the judgment of others. First, appeals to dynamic norms – information about change in others or trends in norms over time – can lead people to conform to the change itself, even if this change violates current norms. Second, framing normative appeals in terms of an invitation to work with others toward a common goal can increase the motivation to join in. Despite ubiquitous unsustainable norms, careful theory-based representations of social norms can help us make progress on climate change.

Type
Article
Information
Behavioural Public Policy , Volume 5 , Special Issue 4: Behavioural Climate Policy , October 2021 , pp. 528 - 555
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aarts, H., Gollwitzer, P. M. and Hassin, R. R. (2004), ‘Goal contagion: Perceiving is for pursuing’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87: 23–37.Google Scholar
Abeles, A. T., Howe, L. C., Krosnick, J. A. and MacInnis, B. (2019), ‘Perception of public opinion on global warming and the role of opinion deviance’, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 63: 118–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2019.04.001Google Scholar
Abrahamse, W. and Steg, L. (2013), ‘Social influence approaches to encourage resource conservation: A meta-analysis’, Global Environmental Change, 23(6): 1773–1785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.07.029Google Scholar
Adger, W. N., Dessai, S., Goulden, M., Hulme, M., Lorenzoni, I., Nelson, D. R., … Wreford, A. (2009), ‘Are there social limits to adaptation to climate change? Climatic Change, 93(3): 335–354. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-008-9520-zGoogle Scholar
Ajzen, I. (1985), ‘From intentions to actions: a theory of planned behavior’, in: Kuhl, J. and Beckmann, J. (eds), Action-control: From Cognition to Behaviour, Heidelberg: Springer, 11–39.Google Scholar
Allcott, H. (2011), ‘Social norms and energy conservation’, Journal of Public Economics, 95(9–10): 1082–1095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2011.03.003Google Scholar
Alló, M. and Loureiro, M. L. (2014), ‘The role of social norms on preferences towards climate change policies: A meta-analysis’, Energy Policy, 73: 563–574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2014.04.042Google Scholar
Attari, S. Z., DeKay, M. L., Davidson, C. I. and Bruin, W. B. de. (2010), ‘Public perceptions of energy consumption and savings’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(37): 16054–16059. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1001509107Google Scholar
Bandura, A. (1986), ‘The explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory’, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4(3): 359–373.Google Scholar
Bandura, A. (2000), ‘Exercise of human agency through collective efficacy’, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(3): 75–78.Google Scholar
Barasi, L. (2019), Guest post: Polls reveal surge in concern in UK about climate change. Retrieved May 21, 2019, from Carbon Brief website: www.carbonbrief.org/guest-post-rolls-reveal-surge-in-concern-in-uk-about-climate-changeGoogle Scholar
Baron, R. S., Vandello, J. A. and Brunsman, B. (1996), ‘The forgotten variable in conformity research: Impact of task importance on social influence’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(5): 915–927. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.5.915Google Scholar
Barth, M., Jugert, P. and Fritsche, I. (2016), ‘Still underdetected – Social norms and collective efficacy predict the acceptance of electric vehicles in Germany’, Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 37: 64–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2015.11.011Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. and Leary, M. (1995), ‘The Need to Belong: Desire for Interpersonal Attachments as a Fundamental Human Motivation’, Psychological Bulletin, 117(3): 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497Google Scholar
Bernthal, M. J., Rose, R. L. and Kaufman, P. (2006), ‘When Norms Collide: Normative Conflict in the Processing of Public Service Announcements’, Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, 16(1–2): 21–39. https://doi.org/10.1300/J054v16n01_02Google Scholar
Bicchieri, C. (2002), ‘Covenants without swords: Group identity, norms, and communication in social dilemmas’, Rationality and Society, 14(2): 192–228.Google Scholar
Bicchieri, C. and Mercier, H. (2014), ‘Norms and Beliefs: How Change Occurs’, in Xenitidou, M. and Edmonds, B. (eds), The Complexity of Social Norms 37–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-05308-0_3Google Scholar
Biel, A. and Thøgersen, J. (2007), ‘Activation of social norms in social dilemmas: A review of the evidence and reflections on the implications for environmental behaviour’, Journal of economic psychology, 28(1): 93–112Google Scholar
Bin, S. and Dowlatabadi, H. (2005), ‘Consumer lifestyle approach to US energy use and the related CO2 emissions’, Energy Policy, 33(2): 197–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-4215(03)00210-6Google Scholar
Bollinger, B. and Gillingham, K. (2012), ‘Peer Effects in the Diffusion of Solar Photovoltaic Panels’, Marketing Science, 31(6): 900–912.Google Scholar
Brehm, J. W. (1966), A theory of psychological reactance, Oxford, England: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Brent, D. A., Cook, J. H. and Olsen, S. (2015), ‘Social Comparisons, Household Water Use, and Participation in Utility Conservation Programs: Evidence from Three Randomized Trials’, Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, 2(4): 597–627. https://doi.org/10.1086/683427Google Scholar
Brown, E. R., Thoman, D. B., Smith, J. L. and Diekman, A. B. (2015), ‘Closing the communal gap: The importance of communal affordances in science career motivation’, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 45(12): 662–673. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12327Google Scholar
Butler, L. P. and Walton, G. M. (2013), ‘The opportunity to collaborate increases preschoolers’ motivation for challenging tasks’, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 116(4): 953–961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2013.06.007Google Scholar
Capstick, S. B. (2013), ‘Public Understanding of Climate Change as a Social Dilemma’, Sustainability, 5(8): 3484–3501. https://doi.org/10.3390/su5083484Google Scholar
Carr, P. B. and Walton, G. M. (2014), ‘Cues of working together fuel intrinsic motivation’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 53: 169–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2014.03.015Google Scholar
Cestac, J., Paran, F. and Delhomme, P. (2014), ‘Drive as I say, not as I drive: Influence of injunctive and descriptive norms on speeding intentions among young drivers’, Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 23: 44–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2013.12.006Google Scholar
Chandran, S. and Menon, G. (2004), ‘When a Day Means More than a Year: Effects of Temporal Framing on Judgments of Health Risk’, Journal of Consumer Research, 31(2): 375–389. https://doi.org/10.1086/422116Google Scholar
Cialdini, R. B. (2003), ‘Crafting Normative Messages to Protect the Environment’, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(4): 105–109. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01242Google Scholar
Cialdini, R. B. and Goldstein, N. J. (2004), ‘Social Influence: Compliance and Conformity’, Annual Review of Psychology, 55(1): 591–621. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142015Google Scholar
Cialdini, R. B., Reno, R. R. and Kallgren, C. A. (1990), ‘A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(6): 1015–1026. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1015Google Scholar
Cole, D. H. (2008), ‘Climate change and collective action’, Current Legal Problems, 61: 229–264.Google Scholar
Davis, M. H., Mitchell, K. V., Hall, J. A., Lothert, J., Snapp, T. and Meyer, M. (1999), ‘Empathy, Expectations, and Situational Preferences: Personality Influences on the Decision to Participate in Volunteer Helping Behaviors’, Journal of Personality, 67(3): 469–503. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00062Google Scholar
de Groot, J. I. M. and Schuitema, G. (2012), ‘How to make the unpopular popular? Policy characteristics, social norms and the acceptability of environmental policies’, Environmental Science & Policy, 19–20: 100–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2012.03.004Google Scholar
Deutsch, M. and Gerard, H. B. (1955), ‘A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment’, The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51(3): 629–636. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046408Google Scholar
Diekman, A. B. and Steinberg, M. (2013), ‘Navigating Social Roles in Pursuit of Important Goals: A Communal Goal Congruity Account of STEM Pursuits’, Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(7): 487–501. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12042Google Scholar
Diekman, A. B., Clark, E. K., Johnston, A. M., Brown, E. R. and Steinberg, M. (2011), ‘Malleability in communal goals and beliefs influences attraction to stem careers: Evidence for a goal congruity perspective’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(5): 902–918. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025199Google Scholar
Doherty, K. L. and Webler, T. N. (2016), ‘Social norms and efficacy beliefs drive the Alarmed segment's public-sphere climate actions’, Nature Climate Change, 6(9): 879–884. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate3025Google Scholar
Eom, K., Kim, H. S., Sherman, D. K. and Ishii, K. (2016), ‘Cultural Variability in the Link Between Environmental Concern and Support for Environmental Action’, Psychological Science, 27(10): 1331–1339. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797616660078Google Scholar
Feinberg, M., Willer, R. and Schultz, M. (2014), ‘Gossip and Ostracism Promote Cooperation in Groups’, Psychological Science, 25(3): 656–664. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613510184Google Scholar
Fitzsimons, G. M. and Bargh, J. A. (2003), ‘Thinking of you: Nonconscious pursuit of interpersonal goals associated with relationship partners’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84: 148–164.Google Scholar
Fornara, F., Carrus, G., Passafaro, P. and Bonnes, M. (2011), ‘Distinguishing the sources of normative influence on proenvironmental behaviors: The role of local norms in household waste recycling’, Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 14(5): 623–635. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430211408149Google Scholar
Frederick, S., Loewenstein, G. and O'Donoghue, T. (2002), ‘Time Discounting and Time Preference: A Critical Review’, Journal of Economic Literature, 40(2): 351–401. https://doi.org/10.1257/002205102320161311Google Scholar
Frizell, S. (2014), Americans Increasingly Want to Live in Cities, Not Suburbs | Time. Retrieved June 4, 2019, from http://time.com/72281/american-housing/Google Scholar
Geiger, N. and Swim, J. K. (2016), ‘Climate of silence: Pluralistic ignorance as a barrier to climate change discussion’, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 47: 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.05.002Google Scholar
Gelfand, M. J., Raver, J. L., Nishii, L., Leslie, L. M., Lun, J., Lim, B. C., … Yamaguchi, S. (2011), ‘Differences Between Tight and Loose Cultures: A 33-Nation Study’, Science, 332(6033): 1100–1104. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1197754Google Scholar
Gerber, A. S. and Rogers, T. (2009), ‘Descriptive Social Norms and Motivation to Vote: Everybody's Voting and so Should You’, The Journal of Politics, 71(1): 178–191. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381608090117Google Scholar
Gerber, P. J., Steinfeld, H., Henderson, B., Mottet, A., Opio, C., Dijkman, J., … Tempio, G. (2013), Tackling climate change through livestock: a global assessment of emissions and mitigation opportunities. xxi + 115 pp. Retrieved from CABDirect2.Google Scholar
Gershgorn, D. (2016), After decades of decline, no-car households are becoming more common in the US. Retrieved June 4, 2019, from Quartz website: https://qz.com/873704/no-car-households-are-becoming-more-common-in-the-us-after-decades-of-decline/Google Scholar
Gifford, R., Scannell, L., Kormos, C., Smolova, L., Biel, A., Boncu, S., … Uzzell, D. (2009), ‘Temporal pessimism and spatial optimism in environmental assessments: An 18-nation study’, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29(1): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.06.001Google Scholar
Gill, J. D., Crosby, L. A. and Taylor, J. R. (1986), ‘Ecological Concern, Attitudes, and Social Norms in Voting Behavior’, Public Opinion Quarterly, 50(4): 537–554. https://doi.org/10.1086/269002Google Scholar
Goetz, J. L., Keltner, D. and Simon-Thomas, E. (2010), ‘Compassion: an evolutionary analysis and empirical review’, Psychological Bulletin, 136(3): 351–374. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018807Google Scholar
Goldberg, M. H., van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A. and Maibach, E. (2019), ‘Perceived Social Consensus Can Reduce Ideological Biases on Climate Change’, Environment and Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916519853302Google Scholar
Goldstein, N. J., Cialdini, R. B. and Griskevicius, V. (2008), ‘A Room with a Viewpoint: Using Social Norms to Motivate Environmental Conservation in Hotels’, Journal of Consumer Research, 35(3): 472–482. https://doi.org/10.1086/586910Google Scholar
Gore, T. (2015), Extreme Carbon Inequality: Why the Paris climate deal must put the poorest, lowest emitting and most vulnerable people first [Data set]. https://doi.org/10.1163/2210-7975_HRD-9824-2015053Google Scholar
Grant, A. M. and Hofmann, D. A. (2011), ‘It's Not All About Me: Motivating Hand Hygiene Among Health Care Professionals by Focusing on Patients’, Psychological Science, 22(12): 1494–1499. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611419172Google Scholar
Haer, T., Botzen, W. J. W. and Aerts, J. C. J. H. (2016), ‘The effectiveness of flood risk communication strategies and the influence of social networks – Insights from an agent-based model’, Environmental Science & Policy, 60: 44–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.03.006Google Scholar
Hall, P. A. and Fong, G. T. (2006), ‘Temporal self-regulation theory: A model for individual health behavior’, Health Psychology Review, 1(1): 6–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437190701492437Google Scholar
Hamedani, M.Y.G., Markus, H. R. and Fu, A. (2013), ‘In the land of the free, interdependent action undermines motivation’, Psychological Science, 24(2): 189–196.Google Scholar
Howe, L. C., Carr, P. B. and Walton, G. M. ((under review). Normative appeals are more effective when they invite people to work together toward a common goal.Google Scholar
Howe, P., Boldero, J., McNeill, I. M., Vargas-Sáenz, A. and Handmer, J. (2018), ‘Increasing Preparedness for Wildfires by Informing Residents of Their Community's Social Norms’, Natural Hazards Review, 19(2): 04017029. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000279Google Scholar
Hunt, E. (2018), More than 100 cities now mostly powered by renewable energy, data shows. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/feb/27/cities-powered-clean-energy-renewableGoogle Scholar
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2018), Global Warming of 1.5° C: An IPCC Special Report on the Impacts of Global Warming of 1.5° C Above Pre-industrial Levels and Related Global Greenhouse Gas Emission Pathways, in the Context of Strengthening the Global Response to the Threat of Climate Change, Sustainable Development, and Efforts to Eradicate Poverty.Google Scholar
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2019), Climate Change and Land: An IPCC Special Report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems.Google Scholar
Iyengar, S. S. and Lepper, M. (1999), ‘Rethinking the value of choice: A cultural perspective on intrinsic motivation’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76: 349–366.Google Scholar
Jacobs, A. M. and Matthews, J. S. (2012), ‘Why Do Citizens Discount the Future? Public Opinion and the Timing of Policy Consequences’, British Journal of Political Science, 42(4): 903–935.Google Scholar
Karau, S. and Williams, K. (1993), ‘Social Loafing: A Meta-Analytic Review and Theoretical Integration’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(4): 681–706.Google Scholar
Keizer, K., Lindenberg, S. and Steg, L. (2008), ‘The Spreading of Disorder’, Science, 322(5908): 1681–1685. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1161405Google Scholar
Kim, O. and Walker, M. (1984), ‘The free rider problem: Experimental evidence’, Public Choice, 43(1): 3–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00137902Google Scholar
Kinzig, A. P., Ehrlich, P. R., Alston, L. J., Arrow, K., Barrett, S., Buchman, T. G., … Saari, D. (2013), ‘Social Norms and Global Environmental Challenges: The Complex Interaction of Behaviors, Values, and Policy’, BioScience, 63(3): 164–175. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2013.63.3.5Google Scholar
Kogut, T., Ritov, I., Rubaltelli, E. and Liberman, N. (2018), ‘How far is the suffering? The role of psychological distance and victimsâ€TM identifiability in donation decisions’, Judgment and Decision Making, 13(5): 458–466.Google Scholar
Latané, B. (1981), ‘The psychology of social impact’, American Psychologist, 36(4): 343–356. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.36.4.343Google Scholar
Latané, B. and Darley, J. M. (1968), ‘Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10(3): 215–221. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0026570CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leiserowitz, A. (2006), ‘Climate Change Risk Perception and Policy Preferences: The Role of Affect, Imagery, and Values’, Climatic Change, 77(1–2): 45–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-006-9059-9Google Scholar
Leiserowitz, A., Maibach, E. W., Roser-Renouf, C., Feinberg, G. and Howe, P. (2013), Climate Change in the American Mind: Americans’ Global Warming Beliefs and Attitudes in April 2013 (SSRN Scholarly Paper No. ID 2298705). Retrieved from Social Science Research Network website: https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2298705Google Scholar
Liberman, N. and Trope, Y. (1998), ‘The role of feasibility and desirability considerations in near and distant future decisions: A test of temporal construal theory’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1): 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.5Google Scholar
Liberman, N., Trope, Y., McCrea, S. M. and Sherman, S. J. (2007), ‘The effect of level of construal on the temporal distance of activity enactment’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(1): 143–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.12.009Google Scholar
Lo, A. Y. (2013), ‘The role of social norms in climate adaptation: Mediating risk perception and flood insurance purchase’, Global Environmental Change. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.07.019Google Scholar
Locke, E. A. and Latham, G. P. (1990), A theory of goal setting & task performance, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, US: Prentice-Hall, Inc.Google Scholar
Locke, E. A. and Latham, G. P. (2002), ‘Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey’, American psychologist, 57(9): 705.Google Scholar
Loschelder, D. D., Siepelmeyer, H., Fischer, D. and Rubel, J. A. (2019), ‘Dynamic Norms Drive Sustainable Consumption: Norm-based Nudging Helps Café Customers to Avoid Disposable To-Go-Cups’, Journal of Economic Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2019.02.002Google Scholar
Markowitz, E. M., Slovic, P., Vastfjall, D. and Hodges, S. D. (2013), ‘Compassion fade and the challenge of environmental conservation’, Judgment and Decision Making, 8(4): 397–406.Google Scholar
Markus, H. R. and Kitayama, S. (1991), ‘Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation’, Psychological Review, 98(2): 224–253. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224Google Scholar
Master, A., Butler, L. P. and Walton, G. M. (2017), ‘How the Subjective Relationship Between the Self, Others, and a Task Drives Interest’, in O'Keefe, P. A. and Harackiewicz, J. M. (eds), The Science of Interest 209–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55509-6_11Google Scholar
McCrea, S. M., Liberman, N., Trope, Y. and Sherman, S. J. (2008), ‘Construal Level and Procrastination’, Psychological Science, 19(12): 1308–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02240.xGoogle Scholar
Milgram, S. (1965), ‘Some conditions of obedience and disobedience to authority’, Human Relations, 18(1): 57–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872676501800105Google Scholar
Miller, D. T. and Prentice, D. A. (2016), ‘Changing Norms to Change Behavior’, Annual Review of Psychology; Palo Alto, 67. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/psycinfo/docview/1760028247/81ABD40D7C4F4EDBPQ/64Google Scholar
Mitchell, J. P., Macrae, C. N. and Banaji, M. R. (2006), ‘Dissociable Medial Prefrontal Contributions to Judgments of Similar and Dissimilar Others’, Neuron, 50(4): 655–663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2006.03.040Google Scholar
Mortensen, C. R., Neel, R., Cialdini, R. B., Jaeger, C. M., Jacobson, R. P. and Ringel, M. M. (2017), ‘Trending Norms: A Lever for Encouraging Behaviors Performed by the Minority’, Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1948550617734615. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617734615Google Scholar
Newcomb, T. M. (1943), Personality and social change; attitude formation in a student community, Ft Worth, TX, US: Dryden Press.Google Scholar
Newcomb, T. M. (1967), Persistence and change: Bennington College and its students after twenty-five years, Wiley.Google Scholar
Newport, F. (2018), ‘Americans want government to do more on environment’, Gallup Politics.Google Scholar
Nilsson, A., von Borgstede, C. and Biel, A. (2004), ‘Willingness to accept climate change strategies: The effect of values and norms’, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24(3): 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2004.06.002Google Scholar
Nolan, J. M., Schultz, P. W., Cialdini, R. B., Goldstein, N. J. and Griskevicius, V. (2008), ‘Normative Social Influence is Underdetected’, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(7): 913–923. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208316691Google Scholar
Oliver, J. E. and Lee, T. (2005), ‘Public Opinion and the Politics of Obesity in America’, Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law, 30(5): 923–954. https://doi.org/10.1215/03616878-30-5-923Google Scholar
Oreg, S. and Katz-Gerro, T. (2006), ‘Predicting proenvironmental behavior cross-nationally: Values, the theory of planned behavior, and value–belief–norm theory’, Environment and Behavior, 38(4): 462–483. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916505286012Google Scholar
Ostrom, E. (2000), ‘Collective Action and the Evolution of Social Norms’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14(3): 137–158. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.14.3.137Google Scholar
Oyserman, D. (2015), Identity-Based Motivation. In Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0171Google Scholar
Paluck, E. L. (2009a), ‘Reducing intergroup prejudice and conflict using the media: A field experiment in Rwanda’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(3): 574–587. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0011989Google Scholar
Paluck, E. L. (2009b), ‘What's in a norm? Sources and processes of norm change’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(3): 594–600. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014688Google Scholar
Paluck, E. L. and Shepherd, H. (2012), ‘The salience of social referents: A field experiment on collective norms and harassment behavior in a school social network’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(6): 899–915. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030015Google Scholar
Penner, L. A. and Davis, J. H. (1969), ‘Conformity and the “rational” use of unanimous majorities’, The Journal of Social Psychology, 78(2): 299–300. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1969.9922376Google Scholar
Perrings, C. and Hannon, B. (2001), ‘An Introduction to Spatial Discounting’, Journal of Regional Science, 41(1): 23–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4146.00205Google Scholar
Pfeffer, J., Salancik, G. R. and Leblebici, H. (1976), ‘The effect of uncertainty on the use of social influence in organizational decision making’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 21(2): 227–245. https://doi.org/10.2307/2392044Google Scholar
Popper, N. (2019), Behold the Beefless ‘Impossible Whopper’ - The New York Times. Retrieved June 4, 2019, from www.nytimes.com/2019/04/01/technology/burger-king-impossible-whopper.html?smid=nytcore-ios-shareGoogle Scholar
Reston, M. (2019), The growing power and anger of climate change voters. Retrieved September 1, 2019, from CNN website: www.cnn.com/2019/09/04/politics/climate-change-voters-demographics/index.htmlGoogle Scholar
Reynolds-Tylus, T., Gonzalez, A. M. and Quick, B. L. (2018), ‘The Role of Choice Clustering and Descriptive Norms in Attenuating Psychological Reactance to Water and Energy Conservation Messages’, Environmental Communication, 0(0): 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2018.1461672Google Scholar
Richter, I., Thøgersen, J. and Klöckner, C. A. (2018), ‘A Social Norms Intervention Going Wrong: Boomerang Effects from Descriptive Norms Information’, Sustainability, 10(8): 2848. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10082848Google Scholar
Rimal, R. N. (2008), ‘Modeling the relationship between descriptive norms and behaviors: A test and extension of the theory of normative social behavior (TNSB)’, Health Communication, 23(2): 103–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410230801967791Google Scholar
Rogers, J. (2019), US Solar: 2 Million Systems Strong. And Definitely Growing. Retrieved June 4, 2019, from Union of Concerned Scientists website: https://blog.ucsusa.org/john-rogers/us-solar-2-million-strongGoogle Scholar
Rowland, M. P. (2018), Millennials Are Driving The Worldwide Shift Away From Meat. Retrieved June 4, 2019, from: https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelpellmanrowland/2018/03/23/millennials-move-away-from-meat/Google Scholar
Saad, L. (2019), Preference for Environment Over Economy Largest Since 2000. Retrieved May 6, 2019, from Gallup.com website: https://news.gallup.com/poll/248243/preference-environment-economy-largest-2000.aspxGoogle Scholar
Saner, E. (2019), Could you give up flying? Meet the no-plane pioneers. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2019/may/22/could-you-give-up-flying-meet-the-no-plane-pioneersGoogle Scholar
Schultz, P. W., Nolan, J. M., Cialdini, R. B., Goldstein, N. J. and Griskevicius, V. (2007), ‘The Constructive, Destructive, and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms’, Psychological Science, 18(5): 429–434. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01917.xGoogle Scholar
Schumann, K., Zaki, J. and Dweck, C. S. (2014), ‘Addressing the empathy deficit: Beliefs about the malleability of empathy predict effortful responses when empathy is challenging’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107(3): 475–493. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036738Google Scholar
Sebanz, N., Bekkering, H. and Knoblich, G. (2006), ‘Joint action: bodies and minds moving together’, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10(2): 70–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2005.12.009Google Scholar
Sherif, M. (1936), The psychology of social norms, Oxford, England: Harper.Google Scholar
Shteynberg, G. and Galinsky, A. D. (2011), ‘Implicit coordination: Sharing goals with similar others intensifies goal pursuit’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(6): 1291–1294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.04.012Google Scholar
Slovic, P. (2010), ‘If I Look at the Mass I Will Never Act: Psychic NumbingPsychic Numbing and GenocideGenocide’, in Roeser, S. (ed.), Emotions and Risky Technologies 37–59. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-90-481-8647-1_3Google Scholar
Smith, T. E. (1975), ‘An axiomatic theory of spatial discounting behavior’, Papers of the Regional Science Association, 35(1): 31–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01947466Google Scholar
Sparkman, G. (2020), Dynamic Norm Interventions: How to Enable the Spread of Positive Change. In Handbook of Wise Interventions: How Social-Psychological Insights Can Help Solve Problems. (in press).Google Scholar
Sparkman, G. and Walton, G. M. (2017), ‘Dynamic Norms Promote Sustainable Behavior, Even if It Is Counternormative’, Psychological Science, 28(11): 1663–1674. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617719950Google Scholar
Sparkman, G. and Walton, G. M. (2019), ‘Witnessing change: Dynamic norms help resolve diverse barriers to personal change’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 82: 238–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2019.01.007Google Scholar
Spence, A., Poortinga, W. and Pidgeon, N. (2012), ‘The Psychological Distance of Climate Change’, Risk Analysis, 32(6): 957–972. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2011.01695.xGoogle Scholar
Staunton, M., Louis, W. R., Smith, J. R., Terry, D. J. and McDonald, R. I. (2014), ‘How negative descriptive norms for healthy eating undermine the effects of positive injunctive norms’, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 44(4): 319–330. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12223Google Scholar
Stok, F. M., Verkooijen, K. T., Ridder, D. T. D. de, Wit, J. B. F. de and de Vet, E.. (2014), ‘How Norms Work: Self-Identification, Attitude, and Self-Efficacy Mediate the Relation between Descriptive Social Norms and Vegetable Intake’, Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 6(2): 230–250. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12026Google Scholar
Tankard, M. E. and Paluck, E. L. (2016), ‘Norm Perception as a Vehicle for Social Change’, Social Issues and Policy Review, 10(1): 181–211. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12022Google Scholar
Tesser, A., Campbell, J. and Mickler, S. (1983), ‘The role of social pressure, attention to the stimulus, and self-doubt in conformity’, European Journal of Social Psychology, 13(3): 217–233. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420130303Google Scholar
Todorov, A. and Mandisodza, A. N. (2004), ‘Public Opinion on Foreign Policy - the Multilateral Public that Perceives Itself as Unilateral’, Public Opinion Quarterly, 68(3): 323–348.Google Scholar
Tomasello, M. (2014), A Natural History of Human Thinking, Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Tomasello, M., Carpenter, M., Call, J., Behne, T. and Moll, H. (2005), ‘Understanding and sharing intentions: The origins of cultural cognition’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(5): 675–691. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X05000129Google Scholar
van der Linden, S. (2015), ‘The social-psychological determinants of climate change risk perceptions: Towards a comprehensive model’, Journal of Environmental Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2014.11.012Google Scholar
van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A. and Maibach, E. W. (2015), ‘The scientific consensus on climate change as a gateway belief: Experimental evidence’, PLoS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118489Google Scholar
van Valkengoed, A. M. and Steg, L. (2019), ‘Meta-analyses of factors motivating climate change adaptation behaviour’, Nature Climate Change, 9(2): 158–163. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0371-yGoogle Scholar
Walton, G. M., Cohen, G. L., Cwir, D. and Spencer, S. J. (2012), ‘Mere belonging: The power of social connections’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(3): 513–532. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025731Google Scholar
Webb, T. L. and Sheeran, P. (2006), ‘Does changing behavioral intentions engender behavior change? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence’, Psychological Bulletin, 132(2): 249–268.Google Scholar
Weber, E. U. (2006), ‘Experience-Based and Description-Based Perceptions of Long-Term Risk: Why Global Warming does not Scare us (Yet)’, Climatic Change, 77(1): 103–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-006-9060-3Google Scholar
Xie, B., Brewer, M. B., Hayes, B. K., McDonald, R. I. and Newell, B. R. (2019), ‘Predicting climate change risk perception and willingness to act’, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 65(2019), 101331.Google Scholar
Xu, X., Zuo, X., Wang, X. and Han, S. (2009), ‘Do You Feel My Pain? Racial Group Membership Modulates Empathic Neural Responses’, Journal of Neuroscience, 29(26): 8525–8529. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2418-09.2009Google Scholar
Yeager, D., Krosnick, J., Visser, P., Holbrook, A. and Tahk, A. (2019), ‘Moderation of classic social psychological effects by demographics in the U.S. adult population: New opportunities for theoretical advancement’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000171Google Scholar