Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-ph5wq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-17T22:58:40.438Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Bilingualism and cognition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 November 2014

VIRGINIA VALIAN*
Affiliation:
Hunter College and CUNY Graduate Center

Abstract

The relation between bilingualism and cognition is informative about the connection between language and mind. From the perspective of language, the question is how bilingualism might help or hinder cognition – narrowly interpreted here as executive function. From the perspective of higher cognition, the question is what kinds of experiences improve executive function. Reported cognitive benefits from bilingualism range from none to substantial as a function of age, type of bilingualism (e.g., life-long balanced vs later-onset or infrequent use of the other language), syntactic relation between the two languages, socio-economic and immigrant status, task, and laboratory. To understand the variability and inconsistencies in results with bilingualism, I analyze concepts of executive function and cognitive reserve and examine the range of factors (such as active video game playing, education, musical training, and aerobic exercise) that are known to correlate with or to improve executive function. I suggest that a) “executive function” is a complex set of cognitive processes, the components of which are sometimes minimally correlated with each other, depending on the task; b) bilingualism is inconsistently correlated with superior executive function and delayed onset of dementia; c) all speakers (mono- or bilingual) have non-linguistic ways of improving executive function; and d) benefits from bilingualism – and all cognitively challenging activities – are inconsistent because individuals vary in the number and kinds of experiences they have that promote superior executive function.

Type
Keynote Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abutalebi, J. (2008). Neural aspects of second language representation and language control. Acta Psychologica, 128 (3), 466478.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abutalebi, J., & Green, D. (2007). Bilingual language production: The neurocognition of language representation and control. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20 (3), 242275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abutalebi, J., & Green, D. W. (2008). Control mechanisms in bilingual language production: Neural evidence from language switching studies. Language and Cognitive Processes, 23 (4), 557582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adesope, O. O., Lavin, T., Thompson, T., & Ungerleider, C. (2010). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the cognitive correlates of bilingualism. Review of Educational Research, 80 (2), 207245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alladi, S., Bak, T. H., Duggirala, V., Surampudi, B., Shailaja, M., Shukla, A. K., Chaudhuri, J. R., & Kaul, S. (2013). Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia, independent of education and immigration status. Neurology, 81 (22), 19381944.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amer, T., Kalender, B., Hasher, L., Trehub, S. E., & Wong, Y. (2013). Do older professional musicians have cognitive advantages?. PloS one, 8 (8), e71630.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amieva, H., Mokri, H., Le Goff, M., Meillon, C., Jacqmin-Gadda, H., Foubert-Samier, A., Orgogozo, J.-M., Stern, Y., & Dartigues, J. F. (2014). Compensatory mechanisms in higher-educated subjects with Alzheimer's disease: a study of 20 years of cognitive decline. Brain, 137, 11671175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson-Hanley, C., Arciero, P. J., Brickman, A. M., Nimon, J. P., Okuma, N., Westen, S. C., Merz, M. E., Pence, B. D., Woods, J. A., Kramer, A. F., & Zimmerman, E. A. (2012). Exergaming and older adult cognition: a cluster randomized clinical trial. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 42 (2), 109119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anguera, J. A., Boccanfuso, J., Rintoul, J. L., Al-Hashimi, O., Faraji, F., Janowich, J., Kong, E., Larraburo, Y., Rolle, C., Johnston, E., & Gazzaley, A. (2013). Video game training enhances cognitive control in older adults. Nature, 501 (7465), 97101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Antón, E., Duñabeitia, J. A., Estévez, A., Hernández, J. A., Castillo, A., Fuentes, L. J., Davidson, D. J., & Carreiras, M. (2014). Is there a bilingual advantage in the ANT task? Evidence from children. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 398, 12 pages.Google Scholar
Bailey, K., West, R., & Anderson, C. A. (2010). A negative association between video game experience and proactive cognitive control. Psychophysiology, 47 (1), 3442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barrett, K. C., Ashley, R., Strait, D. L., & Kraus, N. (2013). Art and science: how musical training shapes the brain. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, Article 713, 13 pages.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bavelier, D., Green, C. S., Pouget, A., & Schrater, P. (2012). Brain plasticity through the life span: Learning to learn and action video games. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 35, 391416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Best, J. R. (2010). Effects of physical activity on children's executive function: Contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise. Developmental Review, 30 (4), 331351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Best, J. R. (2012). Exergaming immediately enhances children's executive function. Developmental Psychology, 48 (5), 15011510.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bialystok, E. (1999). Cognitive complexity and attentional control in the bilingual mind. Child Development, 70, 636644.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E. (2006). Effect of bilingualism and computer video game experience on the Simon task. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie Expérimentale, 60 (1), 6879.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bialystok, E. (2010). Global–local and trail-making tasks by monolingual and bilingual children: Beyond inhibition. Developmental Psychology, 46 (1), 93105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bialystok, E. (2011). Reshaping the mind: the benefits of bilingualism. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie Expérimentale, 65 (4), 229235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bialystok, E., Barac, R., Blaye, A., & Poulin–Dubois, D. (2010). Word mapping and executive functioning in young monolingual and bilingual children. Journal of Cognition and Development, 11 (4), 485508.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Binns, M. A., Ossher, L., & Freedman, M. (2014). Effects of bilingualism on the age of onset and progression of MCI and AD: Evidence from executive function tests. Neuropsychology, 28 (2), 290304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., & Freedman, M. (2007). Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia. Neuropsychologia, 45 (2), 459464.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: evidence from the Simon task. Psychology and Aging, 19 (2), 290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bialystok, E., Craik, F., & Luk, G. (2008). Cognitive control and lexical access in younger and older bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34 (4), 859.Google ScholarPubMed
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., & Luk, G. (2012). Bilingualism: Consequences for mind and brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16 (4), 240250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bialystok, E., & DePape, A. M. (2009). Musical expertise, bilingualism, and executive functioning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 35 (2), 565574.Google ScholarPubMed
Bisoglio, J., Michaels, T. I., Mervis, J. E., & Ashinoff, B. K. (2014). Cognitive enhancement through action video game training: great expectations require greater evidence. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 136, 6 pages.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bixby, W. R., Spalding, T. W., Haufler, A. J., Deeny, S. P., Mahlow, P. T., Zimmerman, J. B., & Hatfield, B. D. (2007). The unique relation of physical activity to executive function in older men and women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39 (8), 14081416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boot, W. R., Kramer, A. F., Simons, D. J., Fabiani, M., & Gratton, G. (2008). The effects of video game playing on attention, memory, and executive control. Acta Psychologica, 129 (3), 387398.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, C. L., Gibbons, L. E., Kennison, R. F., Robitaille, A., Lindwall, M., Mitchell, M. B., Shirk, S. D., Atri, A., Cimino, C. R., Benitez, A., MacDonald, S. W. S., Zelinski, E. M., Willis, S. L., Schaie, K. W., Johansson, B., Dixon, R. A., Mungas, D. M., Hofer, S. M., & Piccinin, A. M. (2012). Social activity and cognitive functioning over time: A coordinated analysis of four longitudinal studies. Journal of Aging Research, 2012, 112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bugos, J. A., Perlstein, W. M., McCrae, C. S., Brophy, T. S., & Bedenbaugh, P. H. (2007). Individualized piano instruction enhances executive functioning and working memory in older adults. Aging and Mental Health, 11 (4), 464471.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burgess, P. W. (1997). Theory and methodology in executive function research. In Rabbitt, P. (Ed.), Methodology of frontal and executive function (pp. 81111). Hove, UK: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Calabria, M., Branzi, F. M., Marne, P., Hernández, M., & Costa, A. (in press). Age-related effects over bilingual language control and executive control. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition.Google Scholar
Calabria, M., Hernández, M., Branzi, F. M., & Costa, A. (2011). Qualitative differences between bilingual language control and executive control: Evidence from task-switching. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, Article 399, 10 pages.Google ScholarPubMed
Calvo, A., & Bialystok, E. (2014). Independent effects of bilingualism and socioeconomic status on language ability and executive functioning. Cognition, 130 (3), 278288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carter, E. C., & McCullough, M. E. (2013). Is ego depletion too incredible? Evidence for the overestimation of the depletion effect. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36 (06), 683684.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, Y. (2014). Reorganization and plastic changes of the human brain associated with skill learning and expertise. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, Article 35, 7 pages.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chertkow, H., Whitehead, V., Phillips, N., Wolfson, C., Atherton, J., & Bergman, H. (2010). Bilingualism (but not always bilingualism) delays the onset of Alzheimer disease: evidence from a bilingual community. Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders, 24 (2), 118125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colcombe, S., & Kramer, A. F. (2003). Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults a meta-analytic study. Psychological Science, 14 (2), 125130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costa, A., Hernández, M., Costa-Faidella, J., & Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2009). On the bilingual advantage in conflict processing: Now you see it, now you don’t. Cognition, 113 (2), 135149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costa, A., & Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2014). How does the bilingual experience sculpt the brain? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 15 (5), 336345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craik, F. I. (2006). Brain-behavior relations across the lifespan: A commentary. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30 (6), 885892.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craik, F. I., Bialystok, E. & Freedman, M. (2010). Delaying the onset of Alzheimer disease Bilingualism as a form of cognitive reserve. Neurology, 75 (19), 17261729.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crane, P. K., Gibbons, L. E., Arani, K., Nguyen, V., Rhoads, K., McCurry, S. M., Launer, L., Masaki, K., & White, L. (2009). Midlife use of written Japanese and protection from late life dementia. Epidemiology, 20 (5), 766774.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crane, P. K., Gruhl, J. C., Erosheva, E. A., Gibbons, L. E., McCurry, S. M., Rhoads, K., Nguyen, V., Arani, K., Masaki, K. & White, L. (2010). Use of spoken and written Japanese did not protect Japanese–American men from cognitive decline in late life. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 65B (6), 654666.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cumming, G. (2014). The new statistics: Why and how. Psychological Science, 25 (1), 729.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Vries, G. J. (2004). Minireview: Sex differences in adult and developing brains: compensation, compensation, compensation. Endocrinology, 145, 10631068.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, A. (2012). Activities and programs that improve children's executive functions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21 (5), 335341.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, A. & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333, 959964.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Driscoll, I. & Troncoso, J. (2011). Asymptomatic Alzheimer's disease: a prodrome or a state of resilience? Current Alzheimer Research, 8 (4), 330335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duñabeitia, J. A., Hernández, J. A., Antón, E., Macizo, P., Estévez, A., Fuentes, L. J. & Carreiras, M. (2014). The inhibitory advantage in bilingual children revisited: Myth or reality? Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie), 61 (3), 234251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dye, M. W. G., Green, C. S. & Bavelier, D. (2009). The development of attention skills in action video game players. Neuropsychologia, 47 (8), 17801789.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eliot, L. (2011). The trouble with sex differences. Neuron, 72 (6), 895898.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Engle, R. W. (2002). Working memory capacity as executive attention. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11 (1), 1923.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erickson, K. I., Miller, D. L., Weinstein, A. M., Akl, S. L. & Banducci, S. E. (2012). Physical activity and brain plasticity in late adulthood: A conceptual review. Ageing Research, 4 (6), 3447.Google Scholar
Fine, C. (2010). Delusions of gender: How our minds, society, and neurosexism create difference. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company.Google Scholar
Fozard, J. L., Vercruyssen, M., Reynolds, S. L., Hancock, P. A. & Quilter, R. E. (1994). Age differences and changes in reaction time: The Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Journal of Gerontology, 49 (4), 179189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freedman, M., Alladi, S., Chertkow, H., Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Phillips, N. A., Duggirala, V., Raju, S. B., & Bak, T. H. (2014). Delaying onset of dementia: Are two languages enough? Behavioural Neurology, 2014, 8 pages.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Young, S. E., DeFries, J. C., Corley, R. P. & Hewitt, J. K. (2008). Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137 (2), 201225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Funder, D. C., Levine, J. M., Mackie, D. M., Morf, C. C., Vazire, S. & West, S. G. (2013). Improving the dependability of research in personality and social psychology: Recommendations for research and educational practice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 39 (6), 803813).Google Scholar
Gathercole, V. C., Thomas, E. M., Kennedy, I., Prys, C., Young, N., Viñas Guasch, N., Roberts, E. J., Hughes, E. K., & Jones, L. (2014). Does language dominance affect cognitive performance in Bilinguals? Lifespan evidence from preschoolers through older adults on card sorting, Simon, and metalinguistic tasks. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 11, 14 pages.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gold, B. T., Kim, C., Johnson, N. F., Kryscio, R. J. & Smith, C. D. (2013). Lifelong bilingualism maintains neural efficiency for cognitive control in aging. Journal of Neuroscience, 33 (2), 387396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldbourt, U., Schnaider-Beeri, M. & Davidson, M. (2007). Socioeconomic status in relationship to death of vascular disease and late-life dementia. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 257 (1), 177181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gollan, T. H., Salmon, D. P., Montoya, R. I. & Galasko, D. R. (2011). Degree of bilingualism predicts age of diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease in low-education but not in highly educated Hispanics. Neuropsychologia, 49 (14), 38263830.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, D. W. (1998). Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1, 6781.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, C. S., Li, R. & Bavelier, D. (2010). Perceptual learning during action video game playing. Topics in Cognitive Science, 2, 202216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, S. C., Sugarman, M. A., Medford, K., Klobusicky, E. & Bavelier, D. (2012). The effect of action video game experience on task-switching. Computers in Human Behavior, 28 (3), 984994.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guiney, H. & Machado, L. (2013). Benefits of regular aerobic exercise for executive functioning in healthy populations. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20 (1), 7386.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanna-Pladdy, B. & MacKay, A. (2011). The relation between instrumental musical activity and cognitive aging. Neuropsychology, 25 (3), 378386.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hatzidaki, A., Branigan, H. P. & Pickering, M. J. (2011). Co-activation of syntax in bilingual language production. Cognitive Psychology, 62 (2), 123150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heidlmayr, K., Moutier, S., Hemforth, B., Tanzmeister, R. & Isel, F. (2014). Successive bilingualism and executive functions: The effect of second language use on inhibitory control in a behavioural Stroop Colour Word task. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 17 (03), 630645.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hernández, M., Costa, A., Fuentes, L. J., Vivas, A. B. & Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2010). The impact of bilingualism on the executive control and orienting networks of attention. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13 (3), 315325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hernández, M., Martin, C. D., Barceló, F. & Costa, A. (2013). Where is the bilingual advantage in task-switching? Journal of Memory and Language, 69 (3), 257276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hilchey, M. D. & Klein, R. M. (2011). Are there bilingual advantages on nonlinguistic interference tasks? Implications for the plasticity of executive control processes. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18 (4), 625658.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hofmann, W., Schmeichel, B. J., & Baddeley, A. D. (2012). Executive functions and self-regulation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16 (3), 174180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hötting, K., & Röder, B. (2013). Beneficial effects of physical exercise on neuroplasticity and cognition. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 37 (9), 22432257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hsin, L., Legendre, G. & Omaki, A. (2013). Priming cross-linguistic interference in Spanish–English bilingual children. In Proceedings of the 37th Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development, pp. 165–77.Google Scholar
Humphrey, A. & Valian, V. (2012). Multi-lingualism and cognitive control: Simon and Flanker task performance in monolingual and multilingual young adults. Talk presented at the Psychonomic Society, Minneapolis, November.Google Scholar
James, B. D., Wilson, R. S., Barnes, L. L. & Bennett, D. A. (2011). Late-life social activity and cognitive decline in old age. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17 (6), 9981005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kavé, G., Eyal, N., Shorek, A. & Cohen-Mansfield, J. (2008). Multilingualism and cognitive state in the oldest old. Psychology and Aging, 23 (1), 7078.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirk, N. W., Scott-Brown, K. C. & Kempe, V. (2013). Do older Gaelic–English bilinguals show an advantage in inhibitory control? In Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society.Google Scholar
Kousaie, S. & Phillips, N. A. (2012). Ageing and bilingualism: Absence of a “bilingual advantage” in Stroop interference in a nonimmigrant sample. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65 (2), 356369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kovács, Á. M. & Mehler, J. (2009). Cognitive gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106 (16), 65566560.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kroll, J. F. & Bialystok, E. (2013). Understanding the consequences of bilingualism for language processing and cognition. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, (ahead-of-print), 1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kroll, J. F., Bobb, S. C., Misra, M. & Guo, T. (2008). Language selection in bilingual speech: Evidence for inhibitory processes. Acta Psychologica, 128 (3), 416430.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kroll, J. F., Dussias, P. E., Bogulski, C. A. & Valdes Kroff, J. R. (2012). Juggling two languages in one mind: What bilinguals tell us about language processing and its consequences for cognition. Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory, 56, 229262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawson, G. M., Hook, C. J., Hackman, D. A. & Farah, M. J. (in press). Socioeconomic status and neurocognitive development: Executive function. In Griffin, J. A., Freund, L. S. & McCardle, P. (eds.), Executive function in preschool children: Integrating measurement, neurodevelopment, and translational research. Washington, DC: APA Press.Google Scholar
Ledgerwood, A. (2014). Introduction to the special section on advancing our methods and practices. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9 (3), 275277.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, P., Legault, J. & Litcofsky, K. A. (2014). Neuroplasticity as a function of second language learning: Anatomical changes in the human brain. Cortex, 58, 301324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linck, J. A., Hoshino, N. & Kroll, J. F. (2008). Cross-language lexical processes and inhibitory control. The mental lexicon, 3 (3), 349.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lövdén, M., Wenger, E., Mårtensson, J., Lindenberger, U. & Bäckman, L. (2013). Structural brain plasticity in adult learning and development. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 37 (9), 22962310.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luk, G., De Sa, E. R. I. C. & Bialystok, E. (2011). Is there a relation between onset age of bilingualism and enhancement of cognitive control? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 14 (4), 588595.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magezi, D. A., Khateb, A., Mouthon, M., Spierer, L. & Annoni, J. M. (2012). Cognitive control of language production in bilinguals involves a partly independent process within the domain-general cognitive control network: Evidence from task-switching and electrical brain activity. Brain and Language, 122 (1), 5563.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marton, K., Campanelli, L., Eichorn, N., Scheuer, J. & Stepanoff, V. (2013). Proactive interference in monolingual and bilingual school-age children. Paper presented at the 9th meeting of the International Symposium on Bilingualism, Singapore.Google Scholar
Miyake, A. & Friedman, N. P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: Four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21 (1), 814.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A. & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moreno, S., Bialystok, E., Barac, R., Schellenberg, E. G., Cepeda, N. J. & Chau, T. (2011). Short-term music training enhances verbal intelligence and executive function. Psychological science, 22 (11), 14251433.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morey, R. D., Rouder, J. N., Verhagen, J. & Wagenmakers, E. J. (2014). Why hypothesis tests are essential for psychological science: A comment on Cumming (2014). Psychological Science, 25 (6), 12891290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morton, J. B. & Harper, S. N. (2007). What did Simon say? Revisiting the bilingual advantage. Developmental Science, 10 (6), 719726.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nyberg, J., Åberg, M. A., Schiöler, L., Nilsson, M., Wallin, A., Torén, K. & Kuhn, H. G. (2014). Cardiovascular and cognitive fitness at age 18 and risk of early-onset dementia. Brain, 137, 15141523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nyberg, L., Lövdén, M., Riklund, K., Lindenberger, U. & Bäckman, L. (2012). Memory aging and brain maintenance. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16 (5), 292305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O’Leary, K. C., Pontifex, M. B., Scudder, M. R., Brown, M. L. & Hillman, C. H. (2011). The effects of single bouts of aerobic exercise, exergaming, and videogame play on cognitive control. Clinical Neurophysiology, 122 (8), 15181525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paap, K. R. (2014). The role of componential analysis, categorical hypothesising, replicability and confirmation bias in testing for bilingual advantages in executive functioning. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 26 (3), 242255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paap, K. R. & Greenberg, Z. I. (2013). There is no coherent evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive processing. Cognitive Psychology, 66 (2), 232258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pashler, H. & Harris, C. R. (2012). Is the replicability crisis overblown? Three arguments examined. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7 (6), 531536.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peal, E. & Lambert, W. E. (1962). The relation of bilingualism to intelligence. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 76 (27), 123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pelham, S. D. & Abrams, L. (2014). Cognitive advantages and disadvantages in early and late bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40 (2), 313325.Google ScholarPubMed
Poarch, G. J., & Van Hell, J. G. (2012). Cross-language activation in children's speech production: Evidence from second language learners, bilinguals, and trilinguals. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 111 (3), 419438.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poulin-Dubois, D., Blaye, A., Coutya, J. & Bialystok, E. (2011). The effects of bilingualism on toddlers’ executive functioning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108 (3), 567579.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prior, A. & MacWhinney, B. (2010). A bilingual advantage in task switching. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13 (2), 253262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ritter, S. M., Damian, R. I., Simonton, D. K., van Baaren, R. B., Strick, M., Derks, J. & Dijksterhuis, A. (2012). Diversifying experiences enhance cognitive flexibility. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48 (4), 961964.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Runnqvist, E., Gollan, T. H., Costa, A. & Ferreira, V. S. (2013). A disadvantage in bilingual sentence production modulated by syntactic frequency and similarity across languages. Cognition, 129 (2), 256263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanders, A. E., Hall, C. B., Katz, M. J. & Lipton, R. B. (2012). Non-native language use and risk of incident dementia in the elderly. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 29 (1), 99108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scarmeas, N., Levy, G., Tang, M. X., Manly, J. & Stern, Y. (2001). Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology, 57 (12), 22362242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schellenberg, E. G. (2005). Music and cognitive abilities. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14 (6), 317320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schellenberg, E. G. & Weiss, M. W. (2013). Music and cognitive abilities. In Deutsch, D. (Ed.), The psychology of music (3rd edition), pp. 499550. London, UK: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siedlecki, K. L., Stern, Y., Reuben, A., Sacco, R. L., Elkind, M. S. & Wright, C. B. (2009). Construct validity of cognitive reserve in a multiethnic cohort: The Northern Manhattan Study. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15 (4), 558569.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, J. R. & Wolf, J. D. (1963). Choice reaction times as a function of angular stimulus-response correspondence and age. Ergonomics, 6, 99105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simons, D. J. (2014). The value of direct replication. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9 (1), 7680.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8 (3), 448460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (2009). Cognitive reserve. Neuropsychologia, 47 (10), 20152028.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (2012). Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer's disease. The Lancet Neurology, 11 (11), 10061012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y., Gurland, B., Tatemichi, T.K., Tang, M.X., Wilder, D. & Mayeux, R. (1994). Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease. Journal of the American Medical Association, 271, 10041010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strobach, T., Frensch, P. A. & Schubert, T. (2012). Video game practice optimizes executive control skills in dual-task and task switching situations. Acta Psychologica, 140 (1), 1324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stroebe, W. & Strack, F. (2014). The alleged crisis and the illusion of exact replication. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9 (1), 5971.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tao, L., Marzecová, A., Taft, M., Asanowicz, D. & Wodniecka, Z. (2011). The efficiency of attentional networks in early and late bilinguals: the role of age of acquisition. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, Article 123, 19 pages.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Terracciano, A., Iacono, D., O’Brien, R. J., Troncoso, J. C., An, Y., Sutin, A. R., Ferrucci, L, Zonderman, A. B., & Resnick, S. M. (2013). Personality and resilience to Alzheimer's disease neuropathology: a prospective autopsy study. Neurobiology of Aging, 34 (4), 10451050.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, C. & Baker, C. I. (2013). Teaching an adult brain new tricks: a critical review of evidence for training-dependent structural plasticity in humans. NeuroImage, 73, 225236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tucker, A. M. & Stern, Y. (2011). Cognitive reserve in aging. Current Alzheimer Research, 8 (4), 354360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner, G. R. & Spreng, R. N. (2012). Executive functions and neurocognitive aging: dissociable patterns of brain activity. Neurobiology of Aging, 33 (4), 826.e1–826.e13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yang, S., Yang, H. & Lust, B. (2011). Early childhood bilingualism leads to advances in executive attention: Dissociating culture and language. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 14 (3), 412422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yeung, C. M., St. John, P. D., Menec, V. & Tyas, S. L. (in press). Is bilingualism associated with a lower risk of dementia in community-living older adults? Cross-sectional and prospective analyses. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders.Google Scholar
Yudes, C., Macizo, P. & Bajo, T. (2011). The influence of expertise in simultaneous interpreting on non-verbal executive processes. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, Article 309, 9 pages.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weissberger, G. H., Wierenga, C. E., Bondi, M. W. & Gollan, T. H. (2012). Partially overlapping mechanisms of language and task control in young and older bilinguals. Psychology and Aging, 27 (4), 959.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zacks, R. T. & Hasher, L. (1994). Directed ignoring: Inhibitory regulation of working memory. In Dagenbach, D. & Carr, T. H. (eds.), Inhibitory mechanisms in attention, memory, and language, pp. 241264. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Zahodne, L. B., Schofield, P. W., Farrell, M. T., Stern, Y. & Manly, J. J. (2014). Bilingualism does not alter cognitive decline or dementia risk among Spanish-speaking immigrants. Neuropsychology, 28, 238246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zahodne, L. B., Glymour, M. M., Sparks, C., Bontempo, D., Dixon, R. A., MacDonald, S. W. & Manly, J. J. (2011). Education does not slow cognitive decline with aging: 12-year evidence from the Victoria Longitudinal Study. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17 (6), 10391046.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Valian Supplementary Material

Appendix

Download Valian Supplementary Material(File)
File 48.6 KB