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Xu, Wanli Judge, Michelle Maas, Kendra Hussain, Naveed McGrath, Jacqueline M. Henderson, Wendy A. and Cong, Xiaomei 2017. Systematic Review of the Effect of Enteral Feeding on Gut Microbiota in Preterm Infants. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing,
Bi, Xinyun Li, Fanghong Liu, Shanshan Jin, Yan Zhang, Xin Yang, Tao Dai, Yifan Li, Xiaoxi and Zhao, Allan Zijian 2017. ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ameliorate type 1 diabetes and autoimmunity. Journal of Clinical Investigation, Vol. 127, Issue. 5, p. 1757.
Lee, Hyo Jeong Choi, Jong Kyoung Ryu, Han Seung Choi, Chang Hwan Kang, Eun Hee Park, Kyung Sik Min, Yang Won and Hong, Kyoung Sup 2017. Therapeutic Modulation of Gut Microbiota in Functional Bowel Disorders. Journal of Neurogastroenterology and Motility, Vol. 23, Issue. 1, p. 9.
Rodríguez-Carrio, Javier López, Patricia Sánchez, Borja González, Sonia Gueimonde, Miguel Margolles, Abelardo de los Reyes-Gavilán, Clara G. and Suárez, Ana 2017. Intestinal Dysbiosis Is Associated with Altered Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Serum-Free Fatty Acids in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Frontiers in Immunology, Vol. 8,
Song, Mingyang and Chan, Andrew T. 2017. Diet, Gut Microbiota, and Colorectal Cancer Prevention: a Review of Potential Mechanisms and Promising Targets for Future Research. Current Colorectal Cancer Reports, Vol. 13, Issue. 6, p. 429.
Rodríguez, M. Carro, M. D. Valiente, V. Formoso-Rafferty, N. and Rebollar, P. G. 2017. Effects of dietary fish oil supplementation on performance, meat quality, and cecal fermentation of growing rabbits1. Journal of Animal Science, Vol. 95, Issue. 8, p. 3620.
Kain, Vasundhara and Halade, Ganesh V. 2017. Metabolic and Biochemical Stressors in Diabetic Cardiomyopathy. Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine, Vol. 4,
Tricò, Domenico Di Sessa, Anna Caprio, Sonia Chalasani, Naga Liu, Wanqing Liang, Tiebing Graf, Joerg Herzog, Raimund I. Johnson, Casey D. Umano, Giuseppina Rosaria Feldstein, Ariel E. and Santoro, Nicola 2017. Oxidized Derivatives of Linoleic Acid in Pediatric Metabolic Syndrome: Is Their Pathogenic Role Modulated by the Genetic Background and the Gut Microbiota?. Antioxidants & Redox Signaling,
Ochoa-Repáraz, Javier and Kasper, Lloyd H. 2016. The Second Brain: Is the Gut Microbiota a Link Between Obesity and Central Nervous System Disorders?. Current Obesity Reports, Vol. 5, Issue. 1, p. 51.
Sears, Claire and Ghosh, Sanjoy 2016. Excess Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Intake Is Associated with Negative Cardiovascular, Intestinal and Metabolic Outcomes in Mice. Canadian Journal of Diabetes, Vol. 40, Issue. 4, p. 278.
Denou, Emmanuel Marcinko, Katarina Surette, Michael G. Steinberg, Gregory R. and Schertzer, Jonathan D. 2016. High-intensity exercise training increases the diversity and metabolic capacity of the mouse distal gut microbiota during diet-induced obesity. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, Vol. 310, Issue. 11, p. E982.
Madore, Charlotte Leyrolle, Quentin Lacabanne, Chloé Benmamar-Badel, Anouk Joffre, Corinne Nadjar, Agnes and Layé, Sophie 2016. Neuroinflammation in Autism: Plausible Role of Maternal Inflammation, Dietary Omega 3, and Microbiota. Neural Plasticity, Vol. 2016, p. 1.
Basson, Abigail Trotter, Ashley Rodriguez-Palacios, Alex and Cominelli, Fabio 2016. Mucosal Interactions between Genetics, Diet, and Microbiome in Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Frontiers in Immunology, Vol. 7,
Zhang, Meiling Sun, Yuhong Liu, Yukun Qiao, Fang Chen, Liqiao Liu, Wen-Tso Du, Zhenyu and Li, Erchao 2016. Response of gut microbiota to salinity change in two euryhaline aquatic animals with reverse salinity preference. Aquaculture, Vol. 454, p. 72.
DeCoffe, Daniella Quin, Candice Gill, Sandeep K. Tasnim, Nishat Brown, Kirsty Godovannyi, Artem Dai, Chuanbin Abulizi, Nijiati Chan, Yee Kwan Ghosh, Sanjoy and Gibson, Deanna L. 2016. Dietary Lipid Type, Rather Than Total Number of Calories, Alters Outcomes of Enteric Infection in Mice. Journal of Infectious Diseases, Vol. 213, Issue. 11, p. 1846.
Gruber, Lisa Hemmerling, Jana Schüppel, Valentina Müller, Michael Boekschoten, Mark V. and Haller, Dirk 2015. Maternal High-fat Diet Accelerates Development of Crohnʼs Disease-like Ileitis in TNFΔARE/WT Offspring. Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, Vol. 21, Issue. 9, p. 2016.
Controversies have emerged regarding the beneficial v. detrimental effects of dietary n-6 PUFA. The alteration of the intestinal microbiota, a phenomenon termed dysbiosis, occurs during several chronic inflammatory diseases, but has not been well studied in an aged population. With present ‘Western’ diets predominantly composed of n-6 PUFA, we hypothesised that PUFA-rich diets cause intestinal dysbiosis in an aged population. C57BL/6 mice (aged 2 years) were fed a high-fat (40 % energy), isoenergetic and isonitrogenous diet composed of rapeseed oil, maize oil or maize oil supplemented with fish oil. We examined ileal microbiota using fluorescence in situ hybridisation and stained tissues by immunofluorescence for the presence of immune cells and oxidative stress. We observed that feeding high-fat diets rich in n-6 PUFA promoted bacterial overgrowth but depleted microbes from the Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes phyla. This corresponded with increased body mass and infiltration of macrophages and neutrophils. Fish oil supplementation (rich in long-chain n-3 PUFA like DHA and EPA) restored the microbiota and inflammatory cell infiltration and promoted regulatory T-cell recruitment. However, fish oil supplementation was associated with increased oxidative stress, evident by the increased presence of 4-hydroxynonenal, a product of lipid peroxidation. These results suggest that an n-6 PUFA-rich diet can cause dysbiosis and intestinal inflammation in aged mice. However, while fish oil supplementation on an n-6 PUFA diet reverses dysbiosis, the combination of n-6 and n-3 PUFA, like DHA/EPA, leads to increased oxidative stress, which could exacerbate gastrointestinal disorders in the elderly.
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