Hostname: page-component-7bb8b95d7b-2h6rp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-10-05T02:36:53.318Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Effect of crocin of Crocus sativus L. on serum inflammatory markers (IL-6 and TNF-α) in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 January 2023

Mohammad Reza Aslani
Affiliation:
Lung Diseases Research Center, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
Nasim Abdollahi
Affiliation:
Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
Somaieh Matin
Affiliation:
Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
Anahita Zakeri
Affiliation:
Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
Hassan Ghobadi*
Affiliation:
Lung Diseases Research Center, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
*
*Corresponding author: Dr H. Ghobadi, fax +984533262140, email h.ghobadi@arums.ac.ir
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Different factors, such as inflammation, oxidative stress, extracellular matrix degradation and apoptosis, affect the pathophysiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), as a progressive disease characterised by permanent airflow limitation. Herbal supplements with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties can help treat certain chronic diseases. The current study aimed at investigating the preventive effects of crocin supplementation on the serum concentrations of IL-6, TNF-α, exercise capacity and pulmonary function tests (PFT) in patients with COPD. The present prospective randomised clinical trial equally divided fifty-seven patients with COPD into a placebo and an intervention group, who respectively received a placebo and crocin (15 mg twice day for 12 weeks) as a supplement. ELISA was used to measure serum levels of IL-6 and TNF-α, also PFT and exercise capacity based on 6-min walking distance test (6MWD), which was performed at the beginning and end of the study. Crocin improved the results of PFT (P < 0·05) and 6-MWD (P < 0·001) and exerted preventive effects by increasing the serum levels of IL-6 in patients with COPD compared with those in the placebo group (P < 0·05). Intervention with crocin significantly lowered serum levels of TNF-α at the end of the study (P < 0·01). The present findings suggest crocin supplementation improves exercise capacity and PFT in patients with COPD by reducing serum levels of inflammatory factors.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
© Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Nutrition Society

Respiratory capacity is limited by chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) as the fourth leading cause of death, a major and progressive health problem(Reference Szalontai, Gémes and Furák1) and a systemic inflammatory disease with different pulmonary and extrapulmonary symptoms, in which systemic inflammatory markers play a key role(Reference Bulgakova, Kausbekova and Kussainova2,Reference Agustí, Edwards and Rennard3) . The potential exacerbation mechanisms of COPD comprise increases in inflammatory factors, including C-reactive protein (CRP), IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α (Reference Hlapčić, Belamarić and Bosnar4). Inflammation in patients with COPD causes anorexia, increases energy consumption and decreases muscle proteins(Reference Argilés and López-Soriano5). Pulmonary function tests (PFT) are negatively correlated with systemic inflammation in these patients(Reference Khan, Daga and Ahmad6).

Researchers have made efforts to introduce treatments for COPD and reduce inflammation using non-pharmacological supplements such as the commonly used saffron and its active ingredients in clinical trials(Reference Bathaie and Mousavi7). A clinical trial found the anti-inflammatory properties of saffron to be reflected in decreased inflammatory markers and improved PFT in patients with asthma(Reference Hosseini, Zilaee and Shoushtari8). Many animal and human studies suggest the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of crocin as an active ingredient of saffron(Reference Bathaie and Mousavi7,Reference Bukhari, Pattnaik and Rayees9,Reference Rahimi, Shams and Aslani10) . The anti-inflammatory activities of crocin were also reported in body organs such as respiratory, nervous, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, urogenital and musculoskeletal systems(Reference Hashemzaei, Mamoulakis and Tsarouhas11,Reference Saadat, Yasavoli and Gholamnezhad12) . Moreover, clinical trials have used the so-called Krocina™ or purified crocin (98 %) as a supplement(Reference Poursamimi, Shariati-Sarabi and Tavakkol-Afshari13). Its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects have also been reported(Reference Poursamimi, Shariati-Sarabi and Tavakkol-Afshari13). The present study investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of Krocina™ on patients with COPD. The 6MWD test and spirometry were performed to evaluate its effects on the exercise capacity and PFT.

Participants and methods

Design

This study was a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial.

Participants

The present trial recruited fifty-seven male patients with COPD presenting from December 2019 to October 2020 to Imam Khomeini Hospital affiliated with Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran.

Clinically stable COPD patients in the past 8 weeks were included in the study based on the symptoms and criteria suggested by the American Thoracic Society, that is, cough, sputum and chronic dyspnoea with FEV1/FVC < 70 %. The exclusion criteria were as follows: infectious disease, bronchiectasis, chronic inflammatory diseases, active liver and kidney diseases, cancer, myocardial infarction and unstable angina in the previous 6 months and sensitivity to crocin and hospitalisation over the previous 3 months. To match the patients by physical activity, those with structured physical activity or planned exercise were excluded. According to the Global Initiative for Obstructive Lung Disease treatment guidelines, patients do not receive medications other than those associated with COPD grade.

Randomisation

The patients were allocated to two groups by simple randomisation. 29 ‘A’ and 28 ‘B’ labeled sealed envelopes were used by nurse to provide medicine and placebo to patients. The patients were randomly assigned to the placebo or intervention group using the RANDBETWEEN function in Microsoft Excel. One of the authors blinded to the grouping randomly inserted the Krocina™ and placebo tablets into numbered bags, which were then distributed by another author among blinded participants who were not involved in the experiment. All authors and participants were blinded using random codes.

Intervention

The intervention and control groups received 15 mg of Krocina™ tablets twice a day (a product of Buali Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pharmaceutical Products Development Center, Sina Pooyesh Drug Company, registration number 48674, and IRC number: 0648126930388841) and the placebo for 12 weeks (Fig. 1). The placebo compounds used were Avicel, polyvinylpyrrolidone and magnesium stearate. The crocin/placebo tablets were taken as two doses in the morning and night with main meals (breakfast and dinner) for 12 weeks.

Fig. 1. Flow diagram of the trial.

Outcomes and relevant measures

The primary outcome variable was serum levels of IL-6 and TNF-α after the 12 weeks intervention, and the secondary outcomes were PFT and a 6-min walking distance test (6 MWD).

Demographic and clinical assessments questionnaire

The measured and recorded demographic information of all the subjects included height, weight and BMI. All patients with COPD underwent PFT using spirometry and 6 MWD according to ATS guidelines, at the beginning and end of the study.

Biochemical examinations

Commercial ELISA kits (Crystal day, China) were used according to the manufacturer’s recommendations, and venous blood samples were taken from all the participants before and after the intervention to measure their serum levels of TNF-α and IL-6.

Sample size estimation

The sample size was calculated based on the formula for mean comparison with α = 0·05, β = 0·05, µ1 = 5·22, S1 = 2, µ2 = 6·8 and S2 = 2, based on a previous study on serum levels of IL-6: n = ([Z1-α/2 + Z1-β]2 [S12 + S22])/(µ1-µ2)(Reference Shahbazian, Aleali and Amani14). Based on these calculations, twenty-two participants were included in each group. Considering the probability of sample attrition, twenty-nine participants were recruited from each group.

Ethical considerations

This study was conducted in accordance with the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and all procedures involving human subjects/patients were approved by the ethics committee of the Ardabil University of Medical Sciences (IR.ARUMS.REC.1397.279). Written informed consent was obtained from all patients. This study was also registered in the Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials (IRCT20110109005579N2, https://www.irct.ir/trial/41998).

Statistical analysis

The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test was performed to evaluate the distribution normality of the data. Parametric data were expressed as mean ± sd and non-parametric data as median and 25th–75th percentiles. At the beginning and end of the study, between-group and within-group comparisons were performed using Mann–Whitney and Wilcoxon tests, respectively. The data were statistically analysed using SPSS-21.0 and Graph Pad Prism 7 at a significance level of P < 0·05. However, intention-to-treat analysis was not used in the analysis of the results because the exclusion of subjects from the study was not due to drug side effects or intolerance of patients that had an effect on the results.

During the study period (12 weeks), all participants were given dietary recommendations, including avoiding fast food, sausages, saffron, smoked and canned foods. The participants were also asked not to change their physical activity or energy expenditure during the experiment. Required information, such as the regular use of tablets and their possible side effects, was followed up every week.

Results

Baseline assessments

Table 1 compares the placebo group with the crocin group, which suggests no significant baseline differences in terms of the mean values of age, height, weight, BMI, PFT, 6 MWD and serum levels of IL-6 and TNF-α.

Table 1. Baseline parameters in placebo and crocin groups

FEV1, forced expiratory volume in the first second; FVC, forced vital capacity; 6MWD, 6-min walking distance test.

Effects of crocin on BMI and pulmonary function test

There was no significant difference in BMI pre-and post-intervention in both groups. In addition, after 12 weeks of crocin intervention, no significant difference was observed in BMI between the end and beginning of the study.

Before or after the intervention, no significant differences were observed between the two groups in terms of pulmonary function test parameters, including FEV1, FVC and FEV1/FVC. Significantly lower and higher FVC and FEV1/FVC ratios were observed, respectively, after the intervention in the placebo group (P < 0·01, Fig. 2(c), P < 0·001, Fig. 2(e), respectively). The post-intervention FEV1 and FEV1/FVC also significantly increased compared with the pre-intervention stage in the crocin group (P < 0·05, Fig. 2(a), P < 0·001, Fig. 2(e), respectively). Moreover, the analysis of PFT parameters showed significant post-intervention differences between the two groups in terms of FVC (P < 0·05, Fig. 2(d)) and no significant difference in terms of FEV1/FVC (P = 0·16, Fig. 2(f)).

Fig. 2. Mean ± sd or median (interquartile range) of (a): FEV1, (b): FEV1 changes, (c) FVC, (d): FVC changes, (e): FVE1/FVC and (f): FEV1/FVC changes in placebo (blue colour) and Krocina-treated (red colour) group’s pre-intervention and after 12 weeks of intervention. FEV1, forced expiratory volume in the first second; FVC, forced vital capacity.

Effects of crocin on 6-min walking distance test

The pre-and post-intervention results of the 6 MWD test were not significantly different between the two groups. Despite the insignificant changes in the 6 MWD between the pre-and post-intervention in the placebo group, the increase in the crocin group was significant (P < 0·001, Fig. 3(a)). Therefore, the mean post-intervention 6 MWD values were significantly different between the two groups (P < 0·05, Fig. 3(b)).

Fig. 3. Mean ± sd or median (interquartile range) of (a): 6MWD and (b): 6MWD changes in placebo (blue colour) and Krocina-treated groups (red colour) pre-intervention and after 12 weeks of intervention. 6MWD: 6-min walking distance test.

Effects of crocin on serum levels of IL-6 and TNF-α

Despite insignificant changes in the crocin group, the serum levels of IL-6 significantly increased in the placebo group after intervention (P < 0·05, Fig. 4(a)). Significant post-intervention differences were also observed between the two groups in terms of serum levels IL-6 despite the insignificant baseline differences (P < 0·05, Fig. 4(a)). The mean changes in serum IL-6 levels were significantly different between the placebo and intervention groups (P < 0·01, Fig. 4(b)).

Fig. 4. Mean ± sd or median (interquartile range) of serum levels of (a): IL-6, (b): IL-6 changes, (c): TNF-α and (d): TNF-α changes in placebo (blue colour) and Krocina-treated groups (red colour) pre-intervention and after 12 weeks of intervention..

No significant differences were observed in the mean serum levels of TNF-α in the placebo group after intervention. Despite the insignificant baseline between-group differences, the post-intervention TNF-α level was not significantly different between the placebo and crocin groups (P = 0·89, Fig. 4(c)). Significant differences were also observed between the two groups in terms of the mean changes in serum TNF-α levels (P < 0·01, Fig. 4(d)).

Discussion

The effects of crocin on patients with COPD include improving PFT, elevating the 6 MWD test and decreasing the serum levels of IL-6 and TNF-α.

Epidemiological, pathological and clinical studies have suggested an association between COPD and systemic inflammation. Even in patients with a stable status, inflammatory proteins such as CRP, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-8 were found to increase in the systemic circulation(Reference Amani, Ghadimi and Aslani15,Reference Ghobadi, Aslani and Hosseinian16) . Slightly significant increases were also reported in other inflammatory circulatory proteins such as soluble TNF, IL-10 and IL-18 receptors in patients with COPD(Reference Petersen, Penkowa and Iversen17,Reference Koehler, Doehner and Hoernig18) . Epidemiological research suggests a negative association between systemic inflammatory proteins (IL-6 and CRP) and FEV1-based PFT(Reference Margretardottir, Thorleifsson and Gudmundsson19,Reference Brüünsgaard and Pedersen20) . Moreover, systemic inflammatory markers were found to be significantly increased in patients with severe COPD compared with those with stable status(Reference Kolsum, Roy and Starkey21).

Numerous studies have addressed medicinal plants with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties(Reference Khazdair, Saadat and Aslani22). Nutritional supplements have been found to improve energy and nutrient status in patients with COPD(Reference Collins, Elia and Stratton23). Supplements with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties can be used to treat COPD(Reference Clini and Ambrosino24,Reference Ghobadi, Abdollahi and Madani25) . Research has suggested the anti-inflammatory and free radical scavenging activities of saffron and its compounds(Reference Assimopoulou, Sinakos and Papageorgiou26). A 12-week crocin intervention significantly reduced the serum levels of IL-6 and TNF-α in patients with COPD compared with those in the placebo group. Crocin also improves systemic inflammatory conditions by reducing inflammatory factors.

In line with the present study, animal research suggests that saffron has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. Oral administration of saffron extract and safranal as active ingredients decreased bronchial epithelial cell apoptosis and serum levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase, IL-5 and IL-13 in animals with asthma(Reference Bukhari, Pattnaik and Rayees9). The anti-inflammatory effects of the ethanolic and aqueous extracts of Crocus sativus are exerted by reducing the levels of IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α (Reference Amin, Abnous and Motamedshariaty27,Reference Akbari-Fakhrabadi, Najafi and Mortazavian28) . Research suggests that crocin has anti-inflammatory effects on lung disease. Administration of crocin reduced inflammatory cells and levels of lung inflammatory markers (IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α) in a COPD model of mice exposed to cigarette smoke(Reference Xie, He and Chen29). Pretreatment with crocin also reduced TNF-α, IL-8, IL-6 and IL-1β levels in human bronchial epithelial cells(Reference Du, Chi and Song30). An in vitro study on murine macrophage RAW 264·7 found that crocin reduced IL-6 and TNF-α and induced IL-4 and IL-10 levels(Reference Zhu, Yang and Dai31). Moreover, a murine model of asthma showed anti-inflammatory effects of crocin on the lung tissue of ovalbumin-sensitised mice through the prevention of elevated TNF-α, IL-5, IL-1β, IL-13 and IL-4 levels(Reference Yosri, Elkashef and Said32).

Different clinical trials on inflammatory factors have reported different effects of saffron and crocin as active ingredients. Shahbazian et al. found saffron and crocin to improve serum levels of CRP in healthy individuals and patients with diabetes(Reference Shahbazian, Aleali and Amani14,Reference Mohamadpour, Ayati and Parizadeh33,Reference Behrouz, Sohrab and Hedayati34) . The serum levels of CRP, however, were not significantly changed after the intervention according to Azimi (patients with diabetes)(Reference Azimi, Ghiasvand and Feizi35), Mousavi (patients with schizophrenia)(Reference Mousavi, Bathaie and Fadai36), Kermani (metabolic syndrome subjects)(Reference Kermani, Zebarjadi and Mehrad-Majd37) and Ebrahimi (diabetic patients)(Reference Ebrahimi, Sahebkar and Aryaeian38). Clinical trials have reported different effects on serum levels of TNF-α. According to Kermani et al. (metabolic syndrome)(Reference Kermani, Zebarjadi and Mehrad-Majd37) and Ebrahimi et al. (diabetes)(Reference Ebrahimi, Sahebkar and Aryaeian38), saffron and crocin decrease serum TNF-α levels. In contrast, Shahbazian et al. (diabetes)(Reference Shahbazian, Aleali and Amani14) and Ghiasian et al. (multiple sclerosis)(Reference Ghiasian, Khamisabadi and Kheiripour39) reported insignificant effects of the intervention. Further studies are required in this context given the contradictory effects of saffron and its active ingredients reported in clinical trials as a result of differences in the disease nature, sample size, concentrations used and intervention duration.

Despite the clinically insignificant changes observed in the present study, 12 weeks of intervention with crocin as a supplement improve PFT results in patients with COPD. Saffron has been found to improve pulmonary symptoms in patients with asthma(Reference Hosseini, Zilaee and Shoushtari8). Animal studies have suggested that saffron and its active ingredients have anti-inflammatory properties(Reference Boskabady and Aslani40,Reference Aslani, Amani and Masrori41) . The improved results of PFT in the crocin group can be partly explained by the anti-inflammatory properties of crocin, which require further research.

The present study reported significant increases in the 6 MWD test in the intervention group compared with the placebo group. Exercise capacity and health-related quality of life are commonly used indicators of respiratory rehabilitation in COPD(Reference McCarthy, Casey and Devane42). Significantly lower 6 MWD was found in patients with COPD(Reference Puhan, Mador and Held43). Therefore, prolonged physical activity has been found to help treat patients with COPD. Increased cardiorespiratory fitness has also been observed in COPD patients treated with crocin.

Despite the unknown role of crocin in respiratory diseases, its anti-inflammatory effects are exerted through the modulation of phosphoinositide-3-kinase/Akt, protein kinase C, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK/ERK), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), NF-κB p65, c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase 4 (CAMK4), inducible nitric oxide synthase, signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6), ER-stress markers and high-mobility group box 1 pathways(Reference Xie, He and Chen29,Reference Yosri, Elkashef and Said32,Reference Aslani, Amani and Masrori41,Reference Dianat, Radan and Badavi44,Reference Kim, Park and Bang45,Reference Xiong, Wang and Yu46,Reference Zhang, Qi and Zhu47) .

This is the first placebo-controlled randomised clinical trial to investigate the effect of crocin on inflammatory markers in COPD patients. However, our study had several limitations. First, the subjects included were all male; further studies are required to assess the effect of crocin in COPD patients of both sexes. Second, there was prolonged recruitment time due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the denial of some patients to participate in the study. Finally, the sample size of our study was moderate, and future studies with larger sample sizes are required. In addition, we did not provide a food reminder for 12 weeks in terms of the content and type of food consumed.

Conclusion

The present clinical trial found that crocin improved systemic inflammation and exercise capacity based on 6 MWD and PFT in patients with COPD. Despite the changes made to improve the patient status, further clinical trials are recommended.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the staff of the spirometer clinic at the Ardabil Imam Khomeini Hospital.

This work was supported by the Ardabil University of Medical Sciences.

M. R. A. and H. G.: Conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, project administration, supervision, writing-original draft. N. A., S. M. and A. Z.: Conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, writing-review and editing.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

References

Szalontai, K, Gémes, N, Furák, J, et al. (2021) Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: epidemiology, biomarkers, and paving the way to lung cancer. J Clin Med 10, 2889.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bulgakova, O, Kausbekova, A, Kussainova, A, et al. (2021) Involvement of circulating cell-free mitochondrial DNA and proinflammatory cytokines in pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 22, 1927.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Agustí, A, Edwards, LD, Rennard, SI, et al. (2012) Persistent systemic inflammation is associated with poor clinical outcomes in COPD: a novel phenotype. PLoS ONE 7, e37483.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hlapčić, I, Belamarić, D, Bosnar, M, et al. (2020) Combination of systemic inflammatory biomarkers in assessment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: diagnostic performance and identification of networks and clusters. Diagnostics 10, 1029.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Argilés, JM & López-Soriano, FJ (1998) Catabolic proinflammatory cytokines. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 1, 245251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khan, NA, Daga, MK, Ahmad, I, et al. (2016) Evaluation of BODE index and its relationship with systemic inflammation mediated by proinflammatory biomarkers in patients with COPD. J Inflamm Res 9, 187198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bathaie, SZ & Mousavi, SZ (2010) New applications and mechanisms of action of saffron and its important ingredients. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 50, 761786.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hosseini, SA, Zilaee, M & Shoushtari, MH (2018) An evaluation of the effect of saffron supplementation on the antibody titer to heat-shock protein (HSP) 70, hsCRP and spirometry test in patients with mild and moderate persistent allergic asthma: a triple-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial. Respir Med 145, 2834.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bukhari, SI, Pattnaik, B, Rayees, S, et al. (2015) Safranal of Crocus sativus L. inhibits inducible nitric oxide synthase and attenuates asthma in a mouse model of asthma. Phytother Res 29, 617627.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rahimi, G, Shams, S & Aslani, MR (2022) Effects of crocin supplementation on inflammatory markers, lipid profiles, insulin and cardioprotective indices in women with PCOS: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Phytother Res 36, 26052615.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hashemzaei, M, Mamoulakis, C, Tsarouhas, K, et al. (2020) Crocin: a fighter against inflammation and pain. Food Chem Toxicol 143, 111521.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saadat, S, Yasavoli, M, Gholamnezhad, Z, et al. (2019) The relaxant effect of crocin on rat tracheal smooth muscle and its possible mechanisms. Iran J Pharm Sci 18, 13581370.Google Scholar
Poursamimi, J, Shariati-Sarabi, Z, Tavakkol-Afshari, J, et al. (2020) Immunoregulatory effects of Krocina™, a herbal medicine made of crocin, on osteoarthritis patients: a successful clinical trial in Iran. Iran J Allergy Asthma Immunol 19, 253263.Google ScholarPubMed
Shahbazian, H, Aleali, AM, Amani, R, et al. (2019) Effects of saffron on homocysteine, and antioxidant and inflammatory biomarkers levels in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized double-blind clinical trial. Avicenna J Phytomed 9, 436445.Google ScholarPubMed
Amani, M, Ghadimi, N, Aslani, MR, et al. (2017) Correlation of serum vascular adhesion protein-1 with airflow limitation and quality of life in stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Respir Med 132, 149153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ghobadi, H, Aslani, MR, Hosseinian, A, et al. (2017) The correlation of serum brain natriuretic peptide and interleukin-6 with quality of life using the chronic obstructive pulmonary disease assessment test. Med Princ Pract 26, 509515.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petersen, A, Penkowa, M, Iversen, M, et al. (2007) Elevated levels of IL-18 in plasma and skeletal muscle in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Lung 185, 161171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koehler, F, Doehner, W, Hoernig, S, et al. (2007) Anorexia in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease – association to cachexia and hormonal derangement. Int J Cardiol 119, 8389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Margretardottir, OB, Thorleifsson, SJ, Gudmundsson, G, et al. (2009) Hypertension, systemic inflammation and body weight in relation to lung function impairment – an epidemiological study. COPD 6, 250255.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brüünsgaard, H & Pedersen, BK (2003) Age-related inflammatory cytokines and disease. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 23, 1539.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kolsum, U, Roy, K, Starkey, C, et al. (2009) The repeatability of interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, and C-reactive protein in COPD patients over 1 year. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis 4, 149156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khazdair, MR, Saadat, S, Aslani, MR, et al. (2021) Experimental and clinical studies on the effects of Portulaca oleracea L. and its constituents on respiratory, allergic, and immunologic disorders, a review. Phytother Res 35, 68136842.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, PF, Elia, M & Stratton, RJ (2013) Nutritional support and functional capacity in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Respirology 18, 616629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clini, E & Ambrosino, N (2008) Nonpharmacological treatment and relief of symptoms in COPD. Eur Respir J 32, 218228.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ghobadi, H, Abdollahi, N, Madani, H, et al. (2022) Effect of crocin from saffron (Crocus sativus L.) supplementation on oxidant/antioxidant markers, exercise capacity, and pulmonary function tests in COPD patients: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Front Pharmacol 13, 884710.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Assimopoulou, A, Sinakos, Z & Papageorgiou, V (2005) Radical scavenging activity of Crocus sativus L. extract and its bioactive constituents. Phytother Res 19, 9971000.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amin, B, Abnous, K, Motamedshariaty, V, et al. (2014) Attenuation of oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis by ethanolic and aqueous extracts of Crocus sativus L. stigma after chronic constriction injury of rats. An Acad Bras Cienc 86, 18211832.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Akbari-Fakhrabadi, M, Najafi, M, Mortazavian, S, et al. (2019) Effect of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and endurance training on mitochondrial biogenesis, endurance capacity, inflammation, antioxidant, and metabolic biomarkers in Wistar rats. J Food Biochem 43, e12946.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xie, Y, He, Q, Chen, H, et al. (2019) Crocin ameliorates chronic obstructive pulmonary disease-induced depression via PI3K/Akt mediated suppression of inflammation. Eur J Pharmacol 862, 172640.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Du, J, Chi, Y, Song, Z, et al. (2018) Crocin reduces Aspergillus fumigatus-induced airway inflammation and NF-κB signal activation. J Cell Biochem 119, 17461754.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhu, K, Yang, C, Dai, H, et al. (2019) Crocin inhibits titanium particle-induced inflammation and promotes osteogenesis by regulating macrophage polarization. Int Immunopharmacol 76, 105865.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yosri, H, Elkashef, WF, Said, E, et al. (2017) Crocin modulates IL-4/IL-13 signaling and ameliorates experimentally induced allergic airway asthma in a murine model. Int Immunopharmacol 50, 305312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mohamadpour, AH, Ayati, Z, Parizadeh, MR, et al. (2013) Safety evaluation of crocin (a constituent of saffron) tablets in healthy volunteers. Iran J Basic Med Sci 16, 3944.Google ScholarPubMed
Behrouz, V, Sohrab, G, Hedayati, M, et al. (2021) Inflammatory markers response to crocin supplementation in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized controlled trial. Phytother Res 35, 40224031.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Azimi, P, Ghiasvand, R, Feizi, A, et al. (2014) Effects of cinnamon, cardamom, saffron, and ginger consumption on markers of glycemic control, lipid profile, oxidative stress, and inflammation in type 2 diabetes patients. Rev Diabet Stud 11, 258266.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mousavi, B, Bathaie, SZ, Fadai, F, et al. (2015) Safety evaluation of saffron stigma (Crocus sativus L.) aqueous extract and crocin in patients with schizophrenia. Avicenna J Phytomed 5, 413419.Google ScholarPubMed
Kermani, T, Zebarjadi, M, Mehrad-Majd, H, et al. (2017) Anti-inflammatory effect of Crocus sativus on serum cytokine levels in subjects with metabolic syndrome: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Curr Clin Pharmacol 12, 122126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ebrahimi, F, Sahebkar, A, Aryaeian, N, et al. (2019) Effects of saffron supplementation on inflammation and metabolic responses in type 2 diabetic patients: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes 12, 21072115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ghiasian, M, Khamisabadi, F, Kheiripour, N, et al. (2019) Effects of crocin in reducing DNA damage, inflammation, and oxidative stress in multiple sclerosis patients: a double-blind, randomized, and placebo-controlled trial. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 33, e22410.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boskabady, MH & Aslani, MR (2006) Relaxant effect of Crocus sativus (saffron) on guinea-pig tracheal chains and its possible mechanisms. J Pharm Pharmacol 58, 13851390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aslani, MR, Amani, M, Masrori, N, et al. (2022) Crocin attenuates inflammation of lung tissue in ovalbumin-sensitized mice by altering the expression of endoplasmic reticulum stress markers. Biofactors 48, 204215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCarthy, B, Casey, D, Devane, D, et al. (2015) Pulmonary rehabilitation for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 23, CD003793.Google Scholar
Puhan, MA, Mador, M, Held, U, et al. (2008) Interpretation of treatment changes in 6-min walk distance in patients with COPD. Eur Respir J 32, 637643.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dianat, M, Radan, M, Badavi, M, et al. (2018) Crocin attenuates cigarette smoke-induced lung injury and cardiac dysfunction by anti-oxidative effects: the role of Nrf2 antioxidant system in preventing oxidative stress. Respir Res 19, 120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, J-H, Park, G-Y, Bang, SY, et al. (2014) Crocin suppresses LPS-stimulated expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase by upregulation of heme oxygenase-1 via calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase 4. Mediators Inflamm 2014, 728709.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xiong, Y, Wang, J, Yu, H, et al. (2015) Anti-asthma potential of crocin and its effect on MAPK signaling pathway in a murine model of allergic airway disease. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 37, 236243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, D, Qi, B-Y, Zhu, W-W, et al. (2020) Crocin alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome by protecting against glycocalyx damage and suppressing inflammatory signaling pathways. Inflamm Res 69, 267278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Figure 0

Fig. 1. Flow diagram of the trial.

Figure 1

Table 1. Baseline parameters in placebo and crocin groups

Figure 2

Fig. 2. Mean ± sd or median (interquartile range) of (a): FEV1, (b): FEV1 changes, (c) FVC, (d): FVC changes, (e): FVE1/FVC and (f): FEV1/FVC changes in placebo (blue colour) and Krocina-treated (red colour) group’s pre-intervention and after 12 weeks of intervention. FEV1, forced expiratory volume in the first second; FVC, forced vital capacity.

Figure 3

Fig. 3. Mean ± sd or median (interquartile range) of (a): 6MWD and (b): 6MWD changes in placebo (blue colour) and Krocina-treated groups (red colour) pre-intervention and after 12 weeks of intervention. 6MWD: 6-min walking distance test.

Figure 4

Fig. 4. Mean ± sd or median (interquartile range) of serum levels of (a): IL-6, (b): IL-6 changes, (c): TNF-α and (d): TNF-α changes in placebo (blue colour) and Krocina-treated groups (red colour) pre-intervention and after 12 weeks of intervention..