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Bowser, Suzanne M. Moore, William T. McMillan, Ryan P. Dorenkott, Melanie R. Goodrich, Katheryn M. Ye, Liyun O'Keefe, Sean F. Hulver, Matthew W. and Neilson, Andrew P. 2017. High-molecular-weight cocoa procyanidins possess enhanced insulin-enhancing and insulin mimetic activities in human primary skeletal muscle cells compared to smaller procyanidins. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, Vol. 39, p. 48.
Haufe, T. C. Gilley, A. D. Goodrich, K. M. Ryan, C. M. Smithson, A. T. Hulver, M. W. Liu, D. and Neilson, A. P. 2016. Grape powder attenuates the negative effects of GLP-1 receptor antagonism by exendin-3 (9–39) in a normoglycemic mouse model. Food Funct., Vol. 7, Issue. 6, p. 2692.
Park, Eunyoung Edirisinghe, Indika Choy, Ying Yng Waterhouse, Andrew and Burton-Freeman, Britt 2016. Effects of grape seed extract beverage on blood pressure and metabolic indices in individuals with pre-hypertension: a randomised, double-blinded, two-arm, parallel, placebo-controlled trial. British Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 115, Issue. 02, p. 226.
Taghizadeh, Mohsen Malekian, Elaheh Memarzadeh, Mohammad Reza Mohammadi, Ali Akbar and Asemi, Zatollah 2016. Grape Seed Extract Supplementation and the Effects on the Biomarkers of Oxidative Stress and Metabolic Profiles in Female Volleyball Players: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial. Iranian Red Crescent Medical Journal, Vol. 18, Issue. 9,
Doshi, Pooja Adsule, Pandurang Banerjee, Kaushik and Oulkar, Dasharath 2015. Phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity and insulinotropic effect of extracts prepared from grape (Vitis vinifera L) byproducts. Journal of Food Science and Technology, Vol. 52, Issue. 1, p. 181.
Nowshehri, Javaid Ashraf Bhat, Zulfiqar Ali and Shah, Mohammad Yaseen 2015. Blessings in disguise: Bio-functional benefits of grape seed extracts. Food Research International, Vol. 77, p. 333.
Radika, Mutlur Krishnamoorthy and Anuradha, Carani Venkatraman 2015. Activation of insulin signaling and energy sensing network by AICAR, an AMPK activator in insulin resistant rat tissues. Journal of Basic and Clinical Physiology and Pharmacology, Vol. 26, Issue. 6,
Seo, Kun-Ho Kim, Hyunsook Chon, Jung-Whan Kim, Dong-Hyeon Nah, Seung-Yeol Arvik, Torey and Yokoyama, Wallace 2015. Flavonoid-rich Chardonnay grape seed flour supplementation ameliorates diet-induced visceral adiposity, insulin resistance, and glucose intolerance via altered adipose tissue gene expression. Journal of Functional Foods, Vol. 17, p. 881.
Chang, Chih-Chun Yang, Meng-Hsuan Tung, Hung-Chun Chang, Chieh-Yu Tsai, Yu-Lin Huang, Jiung-Pang Yen, Tzung-Hai and Hung, Li-Man 2014. Resveratrol exhibits differential protective effects on fast- and slow-twitch muscles in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats (在链脲霉素诱导的糖尿病大鼠中，白藜芦醇对快反应与慢反应肌肉的保护效应具有差别). Journal of Diabetes, Vol. 6, Issue. 1, p. 60.
Hu, Shiwei Xu, Leilei Shi, Di Wang, Jingfeng Wang, Yuming Lou, Qiaoming and Xue, Changhu 2014. Eicosapentaenoic acid-enriched phosphatidylcholine isolated from Cucumaria frondosa exhibits anti-hyperglycemic effects via activating phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B signal pathway. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, Vol. 117, Issue. 4, p. 457.
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Yamashita, Yoko Okabe, Masaaki Natsume, Midori and Ashida, Hitoshi 2012. Prevention mechanisms of glucose intolerance and obesity by cacao liquor procyanidin extract in high-fat diet-fed C57BL/6 mice. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Vol. 527, Issue. 2, p. 95.
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Recent evidence strongly supports the contention that grape seed extract (GSE) improves hyperglycaemia and hyperinsulinaemia in high-fructose-fed rats. To explore the underlying molecular mechanisms of action, we examined the effects of GSE on the expression of muscle proteins related to the insulin signalling pathway and of mRNA for genes involved in the adiponectin signalling pathway. Compared with rats fed on a normal diet, high-fructose-fed rats developed pathological changes, including insulin resistance, hyperinsulinaemia, hypertriacylglycerolaemia, a low level of plasma adiponectin and a high level of plasma fructosamine. These disorders were effectively attenuated in high-fructose-fed rats supplemented with GSE. A high-fructose diet causes insulin resistance by significantly reducing the protein expression of insulin receptor, insulin receptor substrate-1, Akt and GLUT4, and the mRNA expression of adiponectin, adiponectin receptor R1 (AdipoR1) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-α in the skeletal muscle. Supplementation of GSE enhanced the expression of insulin signalling pathway-related proteins, including Akt and GLUT4. GSE also increased the mRNA expression of adiponectin, AdipoR1 and AMPK-α. In addition, GSE increased the mRNA levels of glycogen synthase and suppressed the mRNA expression of glycogen synthase kinase-3-α, causing an increase in glycogen accumulation in the skeletal muscle. These results suggest that GSE ameliorates the defective insulin and adiponectin signalling pathways in the skeletal muscle, resulting in improved insulin resistance in fructose-fed rats.
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