To characterize qualitative Clock Drawing Test (CDT) error profiles across dementia etiologies and mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and to propose a clinically interpretable six-class framework.

In a hospital-based study in Kolkata, India, consecutive adults with cognitive impairment completed a free-drawn “ten past ten” CDT. Errors were coded using classical qualitative categories and clock components (face, numbers, hands), then collapsed into six classes: conceptual, stimulus-bound/perseveration, spatial, planning, number-related, and graphic-conceptual. For nonexclusive domains, omnibus Pearson χ² tests summarized error distributions across diagnoses; Cramér’s V quantified effect size.

Participants included Alzheimer’s disease (AD; n = 36), vascular dementia (VaD; n = 16), behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD; n = 9), MCI (n = 19), and other conditions (n = 22). Although 50.0% drew a normal clock face, only 11.8% achieved perfect numbering and 12.7% set the hands correctly. Conceptual errors were most frequent (70.6%), followed by spatial errors (47.1%); neglect and counterclockwise numbering were rare (3.9% each). Error distributions differed by diagnosis for face, numbers, and hands (all p < 0.001; V = 0.4–0.5). The six-class scheme retained a significant distributional association with diagnosis (χ² = 43.365, p = 0.002; V = 0.3): bvFTD showed prominent conceptual and graphic-conceptual failures, AD combined conceptual and spatial errors, MCI emphasized spatial and number-related errors, and VaD was heterogeneous.

Qualitative CDT profiles vary meaningfully across cognitive disorders. This concise six-class framework captures clinically salient patterns, especially in severely degraded drawings, and may complement brief memory screening and digital CDT metrics.

To characterize the treatment burden of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) using real-world data on pharmacotherapy use, treatment changes, and treatment progression.

This retrospective analysis used closed claims from the Komodo Healthcare Map (2021–2024) to identify U.S. adults (≥18 years) with newly diagnosed or established GAD. Treatment patterns were assessed at the drug level.

Among the 259 158 newly diagnosed and 1 018 288 established GAD patients, GAD-related pharmacotherapy use during the 12 months post-index was 76% and 98%, respectively. Treatment patterns were further analyzed in 59 275 newly diagnosed and 86 920 established GAD patients with ≥1 pharmacy claim. Among newly diagnosed patients, 55% discontinued and 28% added or switched treatments; among established patients, 16% discontinued and 55% added or switched treatments. The median time to first treatment event varied by cohort and event type: discontinuation occurred at a median of 84 days in newly diagnosed and 119 days in established patients, combination therapy at 49 and 32 days, and switching at 31 and 42 days, respectively. Of those who discontinued, 57% of newly diagnosed and 26% of established GAD patients did not resume treatment; among those who restarted, the median treatment gap was 146 and 96 days, respectively. Overall, 75% of newly diagnosed and 94% of established GAD patients who underwent treatment modification experienced at least one additional therapy change during the study.

This study underscores the significant unmet needs in the current treatment of GAD, evidenced by high rates of pharmacotherapy switching, discontinuation, and prolonged gaps in care.

Longitudinal investigation of brain alterations in children putatively at risk of developing schizophrenia may identify early markers of pathophysiology associated with vulnerability for the disorder.

Children aged 9–12 years with multiple antecedents of schizophrenia (psychotic-like experiences; speech and/or motor delays; and social, emotional, and/or behavioral difficulties; ASz, n = 31), with a family history of schizophrenia/schizoaffective disorder (FHx, n = 21), and typically developing children (TD, n = 35) were recruited through community screening using questionnaires. T1-weighted structural MRI scans were obtained at baseline and after approximately 2 and 4 years of follow-up, and processed using the FreeSurfer longitudinal pipeline. Across these 3 assessment waves, total gray matter (GM) and white matter (WM) volume, and regional GM volumes in 12 regions of interest, were compared among the groups using linear mixed models.

Children were aged 11.21 (±1.61) years at baseline and the average lapse-of-time between each assessment was 1.76 (±0.36) years. The ASz group exhibited consistently higher total WM volume (b = 29.45) compared to the TD group, with no statistically significant time-related volumetric WM or GM differences in any region. The FHx group also demonstrated higher total WM volume (b = 36.49), and time-related total and regional GM volume changes were observed; however, these effects were attenuated after correction.

Global and regionally specific brain abnormalities distinguished children with different risk profiles for schizophrenia relative to their typically developing peers. Follow-up is required to determine how these changes may relate to later schizophrenia.