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³³ Quoted in Ishizuki, “Zen-Kansai Fujin Rengōkai no seiritsu to tenkai,” 42.

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³⁸ Mumeo, Oku, Fujin mondai jūrokkō (Nihon Tosho Sentaa, 1982), 464–65.Google Scholar

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⁴⁰ Quoted in Yoneda, 133.

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⁵⁰ Shiraishi, 45.

⁵¹ Ishizuki, , “Fujin undo no tenkai,” 170; Rengōkai, Nihon Fujin Dantai, Fujin no ayumi hachijunen (Shin Tokusho, 1960), 44–45.Google Scholar

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⁵⁷ Robins-Mowry, 67.

⁵⁸ NFMSS, 166–78; Imanaka. 28–47.

⁵⁹ NFMSS. 166–78. The term universal suffrage (futsū senkyo) is widely used to refer to the abolition of property qualifications for male electors. In this essay that movement is distinguished as universal manhood suffrage.

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⁶⁷ On the relationship of American nuptiality, sex ratios by state, and immigration to the suffrage issue, see Grimes, esp. 69–70, 87–88; Degler, 330, 335. On the high Japanese nup-tiality rate, which was fairly even across prefectures, see Mosk, Carl, Patriarchy and Fertility- Japan and Sweden, 1880–1960 (New York: Academic Press, 1983), 155.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Kira, , quoted in Kodama, Fujin sanseiken undo shōshi: Kanshū lchikawa Fusae, 101;Google Scholar on Fujimura, see ibid., 67–68; and NFMSS, 192, 194; Hara, “Chian keisatsu hō-chō kaisei horit-suan, gaisanken iinkai, daiikkai,” 12 March 1925, Teikoku Gikai, Daigojūk i, Shūgiin linkai giroku.

⁶⁹ Tsuchiya, 27 February 1921, Teikoku Gikai, Daiyonjūyonkai, Shūgiin sokkiroku; Kataoka, “Chian keisatsu hō-chū kaisei hōritsuan, gaisanken Iinkai, daiyonkai,” 23 March 1925, Teikoku Gikai, Daigojūkai, Shūgiin linkai giroku: Yoshida, “Chian keisatsu hō-chū kaisei horitsuan, gaisanken Iinkai, daiyonkai,” 23 March 1925, Teikoku Gikai, Daigojūkai, Shūgiin linkai giroku.

⁷⁰ Takahashi, , “Chian keisatsu hō-chō kaisei hōritsuan, gaisanken iinkai, dainikai.” 14 04 1925,Google Scholar Teikoku Gikai, Daigojūkai, Shūgiin linkai giroku; Katayama, quoted in Matsuyama Jirō, “Fujin kominken'an no suii,” Hōgaku ronshū (Komesawa University), no. 7 (1970), 93; Yamaguchi, “Chian keisatsu hō-chū kaisei hōritsuan, gaisanken Iinkai, daiikkai,” 12 March 1925, Teikoku Gikai, Daigojūkai, Shūgiin linkai giroku; Arima, “Chian keisatsu hō-chū kaisei hōritsuan, gaisanken Iinkai, daigokai,” 24 March 1925, Teikoku Gikai, Daigojūkai, Shūgiin linkai giroku; Suematsu, “Shisei-chū kaisei hōritsuan, gaigoken Iinkai. daiikkai,” 9 May 1930, Teikoku Gikai, Daigojūhachikai, Shūgiin linkai giroku: Takagi, “Chian keisatsu hō-chū kaisei hōritsuan, gaisanken Iinkai, dainikai,” 12, 14 March 1925, Teikoku Gikai, Daigojūkai, Shūgiin linkai giroku; Matsumoto, “Chian Keisatsu hō-chū Kaisei hōritsuan, gaisanken iinkai, daiyonkai,” 23 March 1925, Teikoku Gikai, Shūgiin Iinkai giroku.

⁷¹ Takahashi, quoted in Matsuyama, 105–6; see also “Shisei-chū kaisei hōritsuan, gainiken iinkai, daiikkai,” 12 May 1930, Teikoku Gikai, Daigojūhachikai, Kizokuin linkai giroku, in which Takahashi castigated the Peers for a decade of delay on women's rights, invoked the spirit of the Meiji Restoration, and demanded that Japanese women have even more rights than American women. Hoshijima, quoted in Matsuyama, 101; Nishioka, quoted in Shiraishi, 59.

⁷² Shimizu, , “Fukensei-chu kaisei hōritsuan, gaisanken iinkai, dainikai,” 8 02 1929, Teikoku Gikai, Daigojūrokkai, Shūgiin linkai giroku.Google Scholar

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⁷⁴ linkai, Taigakai:Naimushō Shi Henshū, Naimushō shi, (Taigakai, 1971), II. 189–93.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ For example, see “Chian keisatsu hō-chū kaisei hōritsuan, Gaisanken linkai, daiikai.” 11 March 1925, Teikoku Gikai, Daigojūkai, Shūgiin linkai giroku.

⁷⁶ Matsuyama, 90.

⁷⁷ Kenzō, Adachi speech in “Shisei-chū kaisei hōritsuan, Gairokken Iinkai, daiikkai,” 9 05 1930, Gikai, Teikoku, Daigojūhachikai. Shūgiin linkai sokkiroku.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Chino, 174–75. The army reserve was another official mass organization, but it showed little interest in women before the formation of the Greater Japan National Defense Women's Organization, Dai Nihon Kokubō Fujinkai, in 1932, although the general staff joined other agencies in studying the performance of European women in World War I.

⁷⁹ Saji, 120–43.

⁸⁰ Chino, 216.

⁸¹ Tsunehisa, Abe, “Senkyūhyakunijū nendai no fujinkai undo ni tsuite: Toyama-ken o rei toshite,” in Nihon no joseishi, vol. 5, Kenkyūkai, Joseishi Sōgō. ed. (Tokyo Daigaku Shup-pankai, 1983), 78, 80–81.Google Scholar

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⁸³ Ishizuki, “Fujin undo no tenkai,” 40.

⁸⁴ Abe, 90–93, 99. 102, 110–11.

⁸⁵ Chino. 263.

⁸⁶ Abe, 91–93.

⁸⁷ Chino, 220–22; Abe, 100–101. On the army's later “voluntary” women's associations there is valuable information in Smith, Robert J. and Wiswell, Ella Lury, Women of Suye Mura (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982)Google Scholar, and I have analyzed it in “Women in a Prewar Japanese Village: Suye Mura Revisited,” Peasant Studies, 10 (1983), 185–88.Google Scholar

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⁸⁹ Matsuyama, 12.

⁹⁰ Karoku, Nomura, in “Shisei-chū kaisei horitsuan, daiikkai,” 12 05 1930, Gikai, Teikoku, Daigojūhachikai, Shūgiin giji sokkiroku; Hayashi, 132.Google Scholar

⁹¹ I am indebted to Sally Hastings for the idea that women's wartime participation in mass patriotic organizations may be related to their participation in postwar politics. Susan Pharr has raised the question of whether women's rights provisions under the Allied occupation were initiated by American men, American women, or Japanese women on their staffs; see Interna tional Group for the Study of Women, “Soldiers as Feminists: Debate within U.S. Occupation Ranks over Women's Rights Policy in Japan,” Proceedings of the Tokyo Symposium on Women, 08 1977 (Tokyo: International Group for the Study of Women, 1978).Google Scholar

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