Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-gtxcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-18T14:13:43.873Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Racial discrimination and ethnic racial identity in adolescence as modulators of HPA axis activity

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 January 2021

Emma K. Adam ,
Emily F. Hittner ,
Sara E. Thomas ,
Sarah Collier Villaume  and
Ednah E. Nwafor
Emma K. Adam*
Affiliation:
School of Education and Social Policy, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
Emily F. Hittner
Affiliation:
School of Education and Social Policy, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
Sara E. Thomas
Affiliation:
School of Education and Social Policy, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
Sarah Collier Villaume
Affiliation:
School of Education and Social Policy, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
Ednah E. Nwafor
Affiliation:
School of Education and Social Policy, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: Emma Adam, School of Education and Social Policy, Northwestern University, 2120 Campus Drive, Evanston, IL, 60626, USA; ek-adam@northwestern.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We review evidence of racial discrimination as a critical and understudied form of adversity that has the potential to impact stress biology, particularly hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis activity. We highlight ethnic racial identity (ERI) as a positive regulatory influence on HPA axis activity, as indexed by levels of salivary cortisol. In past research by our group, Black individuals with high adolescent discrimination had low adult cortisol levels (hypocortisolism). Here, we present new analyses showing that ERI, measured prospectively from ages 12 through 32 in 112 Black and white individuals, is related to better-regulated cortisol levels in adulthood, particularly for Black participants. We also describe ongoing research that explores whether the promotion of ERI during adolescence can reduce ethnic–racial disparities in stress biology and in emotional health and academic outcomes.

Keywords

adolescenceadversitycortisolearly adulthoodethnic racial identityHPA axisracial discrimination
Type
Special Section 1: 2019 Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 32 , Special Issue 5: Early Adversity, Stress, and Neurobehavioral Development: Honoring Megan R. Gunnar's Contributions to Developmental Science , December 2020 , pp. 1669 - 1684
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adam, E. K. (2012). Emotion-cortisol transactions occur over multiple time scales in development: Implications for research on emotion and the development of emotional disorders. In Dennis, T. A., Buss, K. A., & Hastings, P. D. (Eds.), Physiological measures of emotion from a developmental perspective: state of the science. Monographs of the society for research in child development (Vol. 77(2), pp. 17–27). Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Adam, E. K., Heissel, J. A., Zeiders, K. H., Richeson, J. A., Ross, E. C., Ehrlich, K. B., … Eccles, J. S. (2015). Developmental histories of perceived racial discrimination and diurnal cortisol profiles in adulthood: A 20-year prospective study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 62, 279–291. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.08.018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adam, E. K., & Kumari, M. (2009). Assessing salivary cortisol in large-scale, epidemiological research. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 1423–1436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adam, E. K., Quinn, M. E., Tavernier, R., McQuillan, M. T., Dahlke, K. A., & Gilbert, K. E. (2017). Diurnal cortisol slopes and mental and physical health outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 83, 25–41. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.05.018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alfaro, E. C., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Gonzales-Backen, M. A., Bámaca, M. Y., & Zeiders, K. H. (2009). Latino adolescents' academic success: The role of discrimination, academic motivation, and gender. Journal of Adolescence, 32(4), 941–962. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.08.007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Azmitia, M., Syed, M., & Radmacher, K. (2013). Finding your niche: Identity and emotional support in emerging adults’ adjustment to the transition to college. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 23, 744–761.10.1111/jora.12037CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benner, A. D., & Graham, S. (2013). The antecedents and consequences of racial/ethnic discrimination during adolescence: Does the source of discrimination matter? Developmental Psychology, 49, 1602.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benner, A. D., Wang, Y., Shen, Y., Boyle, A. E., Polk, R., & Cheng, Y. P. (2018). Racial/ethnic discrimination and well-being during adolescence: A meta-analytic review. American Psychologist, 73, 855.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berger, M., & Sarnyai, Z. (2015). “More than skin deep”: Stress neurobiology and mental health consequences of racial discrimination. Stress, 18, 1–10. doi:10.3109/10253890.2014.989204CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blackhart, G. C., Eckel, L. A., & Tice, D. M. (2007). Salivary cortisol in response to acute social rejection and acceptance by peers. Biological Psychology, 75, 267–276.10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.03.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, C. (2010). Going down to the crossroads: Neuroendocrinology, developmental psychobiology, and prospects for research at the intersection of neuroscience and education. Mind, Brain, and Education, 4, 182–187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, C., Granger, D. A., & Peters Razza, R. (2005). Cortisol reactivity is positively related to executive function in preschool children attending head start. Child Development, 76, 554–567.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blakemore, S.-J., & Mills, K. L. (2014). Is adolescence a sensitive period for sociocultural processing? Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 187–207. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115202CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brodish, A. B., Cogburn, C. D., Fuller-Rowell, T. E., Peck, S. C., Malanchuk, O., & Eccles, J. S. (2011). Perceived racial discrimination as a predictor of health behaviors: The moderating role of gender. Race and Social Problems, 3, 160–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brondolo, E., Brady, N., Thompson, S., Tobin, J. N., Cassells, A., Sweeney, M., … Contrada, R. J. (2008). Perceived racism and negative affect: Analyses of trait and state measures of affect in a community sample. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27, 150.10.1521/jscp.2008.27.2.150CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broudy, R., Brondolo, E., Coakley, V., Brady, N., Cassells, A., Tobin, J. N., & Sweeney, M. (2007). Perceived ethnic discrimination in relation to daily moods and negative social interactions. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 30, 31–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, T. L., Linver, M. R., Evans, M., & DeGennaro, D. (2009). African–American parents’ racial and ethnic socialization and adolescent academic grades: Teasing out the role of gender. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 214–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Busse, D., Yim, I. S., Campos, B., & Marshburn, C. K. (2017). Discrimination and the HPA axis: Current evidence and future directions. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 40, 539–552.10.1007/s10865-017-9830-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cacioppo, J. T., Hawkley, L. C., Crawford, L. E., Ernst, J. M., Burleson, M. H., Kowalewski, R. B., … Berntson, G. G. (2002). Loneliness and health: Potential mechanisms. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64, 407–417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: a biopsychosocial model. American Psycholologist, 54, 805.10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.805CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clements, A. D., & Parker, C. R. (1998). The relationship between salivary cortisol concentrations in frozen versus mailed samples. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 23, 613–616.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crofford, L., Pillemer, S. R., Kalogeras, K. T., Cash, J. M., Michelson, D., Kling, M. A., … Wilder, R. L. (1994). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis perturbations in patients with fibromyalgia. Arthritis and Rheumatism, 37, 1583–1592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dearing, E., & Hamilton, L. C. (2006). V. Contemporary advances and classic advice for analyzing mediating and moderating variables. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 71, 88–104. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.2006.00406.xGoogle Scholar
Del Giudice, M., Ellis, B. J., & Shirtcliff, E. A. (2011). The adaptive calibration model of stress responsivity. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1562–1592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DePasquale, C. E., Donzella, B., & Gunnar, M. R. (2019). Pubertal recalibration of cortisol reactivity following early life stress: A cross-sectional analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 60, 566–575.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Desantis, A. S., Kuzawa, C. W., & Adam, E. K. (2015). Developmental origins of flatter cortisol rhythms: Socioeconomic status and adult cortisol activity. American Journal of Human Biology, 27, 458–467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickerson, S. S., Gruenewald, T. L., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004). When the social self is threatened: Shame physiology and health. Journal of Personality, 72, 1191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 355–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doane, L. D., & Adam, E. K. (2010). Loneliness and cortisol: Momentary, day-to-day, and trait associations. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 430–441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doane, L. D., & Zeiders, K. H. (2014). Contextual moderators of momentary cortisol and negative affect in adolescents’ daily lives. Journal of Adolescent Health, 54, 536–542.10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.10.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eccles, J. S., Wong, C. A., & Peck, S. C. (2006). Ethnicity as a social context for the development of African-American adolescents. Journal of School Psychology, 44, 407–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elkind, D. (1999). Egocentrism in adolescence. Cognitive and Moral Development and Academic Achievement in Adolescence, 2, 13.Google Scholar
English, D., Lambert, S. F., Tynes, B. M., Bowleg, L., Zea, M. C., & Howard, L. C. (2020). Daily multidimensional racial discrimination among Black U.S. American adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 66, 101068. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.101068CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fischer, A. R., & Shaw, C. M. (1999). African Americans’ mental health and perceptions of racist discrimination: The moderating effects of racial socialization experiences and self-esteem. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, C. B., Wallace, S. A., & Fenton, R. E. (2000). Discrimination distress during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 679–695. doi: 10.1023/A:1026455906512.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fries, E., Hesse, J., Hellhammer, J., & Hellhammer, D. H. (2005). A new view on hypocortisolism. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30, 1010–1016.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuller-Rowell, T. E., Cogburn, C. D., Brodish, A. B., Peck, S. C., Malanchuk, O., & Eccles, J. S. (2012). Racial discrimination and substance use: Longitudinal associations and identity moderators. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 35, 581–590.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goosby, B. J., Bellatorre, A., Walsemann, K. M., & Cheadle, J. E. (2013). Adolescent loneliness and health in early adulthood. Sociological Inquiry, 83, 505–536.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graham, J. W. (2009). Missing data analysis: Making it work in the real world. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 549–576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., DePasquale, C. E., Reid, B. M., & Donzella, B. (2019). Pubertal stress recalibration reverses the effects of early life stress in postinstitutionalized children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116, 23984–23988.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrell, C. J. P., Burford, T. I., Cage, B. N., Nelson, T. M., Shearon, S., Thompson, A., & Green, S. (2011). Multiple pathways linking racism to health outcomes. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 8, 143–157.10.1017/S1742058X11000178CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris-Britt, A., Valrie, C. R., Kurtz-Costes, B., & Rowley, S. J. (2007). Perceived racial discrimination and self-esteem in African American youth: Racial socialization as a protective factor. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 669–682. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00540.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayes, A. F., & Matthes, J. (2009). Computational procedures for probing interactions in OLS and logistic regression: SPSS and SAS implementations. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 924–936.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heim, C., Ehlert, U., & Helhammer, D. (2000). The potential role of hypocortisolism in the pathophysiology of stress-related bodily disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 1–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hittner, E. F., & Adam, E. K. (2019). Emotional pathways to the biological embodiment of racial discrimination experiences. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 107, 39–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huynh, V. W., Guan, S.-S. A., Almeida, D. M., McCreath, H., & Fuligni, A. J. (2016). Everyday discrimination and diurnal cortisol during adolescence. Hormones and Behavior, 80, 76–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.01.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, P. B., & Stewart, Q. T. (2003). A research agenda for the black middle class: Work stress, survival strategies, and mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 442–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jeličić, H., Phelps, E., & Lerner, R. M. (2009). Use of missing data methods in longitudinal studies: The persistence of bad practices in developmental psychology. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Korous, K. M., Causadias, J. M., & Casper, D. M. (2017). Racial discrimination and cortisol output: A meta-analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 193, 90–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lacoe, J. R. (2015). Unequally safe: The race gap in school safety. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 13, 143–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levy, D. J., Heissel, J. A., Richeson, J. A., & Adam, E. K. (2016). Psychological and biological responses to race-based social stress as pathways to disparities in educational outcomes. American Psychologist, 71, 455.10.1037/a0040322CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luna, B., Garver, K. E., Urban, T. A., Lazar, N. A., & Sweeney, J. A. (2004). Maturation of cognitive processes from late childhood to adulthood. Child Development, 75, 1357–1372.10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00745.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maldonado, E., Fernandez, F., Trianes, M., Wesnes, K., Petrini, O., Zangara, A., … Ambrosetti, L. (2008). Cognitive performance and morning levels of salivary cortisol and alpha-Amylase in children reporting high vs. low daily stress perception.Spanish Journal of Psychology, 11, 3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manly, C. A., & Wells, R. S. (2015). Reporting the use of multiple imputation for missing data in higher education research. Research in Higher Education, 56, 397–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCormick, C. M., Mathews, I. Z., Thomas, C., & Waters, P. (2010). Investigations of HPA function and the enduring consequences of stressors in adolescence in animal models. Brain and Cognition, 72, 73–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., & Lambert, H. K. (2014). Childhood adversity and neural development: Deprivation and threat as distinct dimensions of early experience. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 47, 578–591.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, G. E., Chen, E., & Zhou, E. S. (2007). If it goes up, must it come down? Chronic stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in humans. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 25–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neblett, E. W., Philip, C. L., Cogburn, C. D., & Sellers, R. M. (2006). African American adolescents’ discrimination experiences and academic achievement: Racial socialization as a cultural compensatory and protective factor. Journal of Black Psychology, 32(2), 199–218.10.1177/0095798406287072CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neblett, E. W., Rivas-Drake, D., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2012). The promise of racial and ethnic protective factors in promoting ethnic minority youth development. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 295–303. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00239.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pager, D., Bonikowski, B., & Western, B. (2009). Discrimination in a low-wage labor market: A field experiment. American Sociological Review, 74, 777–799.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pager, D., & Shepherd, H. (2008). The sociology of discrimination: Racial discrimination in employment, housing, credit, and consumer markets. Annual Review of Sociology, 34, 181–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paradies, Y., Ben, J., Denson, N., Elias, A., Priest, N., Pieterse, A., … Gee, G. (2015). Racism as a determinant of health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS One, 10, 9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peck, S. C., Brodish, A. B., Malanchuk, O., Banerjee, M., & Eccles, J. S. (2014). Racial/ethnic socialization and identity development in Black families: The role of parent and youth reports. Developmental Psychology, 50, 1897.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phinney, J. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 499–514. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.499CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Preacher, K. J., Curran, P. J., & Bauer, D. J. (2006). Computational tools for probing interactions in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31, 437–448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pruessner, J. C., Kirschbaum, C., Meinlschmid, G., & Hellhammer, D. H. (2003). Two formulas for computation of the area under the curve represent measures of total hormone concentration versus time-dependent change. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28, 916–931.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raudenbush, S. W., Bryk, A. S., Cheong, Y. F., & Congdon, R. (2011). HLM 7 for Windows [Computer software]. Skokie, IL: Scientific Software International, Inc.Google Scholar
Rivas-Drake, D. (2011). Ethnic–racial socialization and adjustment among Latino college students: The mediating roles of ethnic centrality, public regard, and perceived barriers to opportunity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 606–619.10.1007/s10964-010-9564-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rivas-Drake, D., Seaton, E. K., Markstrom, C., Quintana, S., Syed, M., Lee, R. M., … Yip, T. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity in adolescence: Implications for psychosocial, academic, and health outcomes. Child Development, 85, 40–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Romeo, R. D. (2017). The impact of stress on the structure of the adolescent brain: Implications for adolescent mental health. Brain Research, 1654, 185–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, P. D., Maynard, A. M., & Uzelac, S. M. (2008). Adolescent egocentrism: A contemporary view. Adolescence, 43, 441.Google ScholarPubMed
Scott, L. D. (2003). The relation of racial identity and racial socialization to coping with discrimination among African American adolescents. Journal of Black Studies, 33, 520–538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sellers, R. M., Chavous, T, & Cooke, D. Y. (1998). Racial ideology and racial centrality as predictors of African American college students' academic performance. Journal of Black Psychology, 24(1), 8–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sellers, R. M., Copeland-Linder, N., Martin, P. P., & Lewis, R. H. (2006). Racial identity matters: The relationship between racial discrimination and psychological functioning in African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 187–216.10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00128.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shelley, W. W., Pickett, J. T., Mancini, C., McDougle, R. D., Rissler, G., & Cleary, H. (2017). Race, bullying, and public perceptions of school and university safety. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1–26. doi: 10.1177/0886260517736272.Google ScholarPubMed
Spears Brown, C., & Bigler, R. S. (2005). Children's perceptions of discrimination: A developmental model. Child Development, 76(3), 533–553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stalder, T., Kirschbaum, C., Kudielka, B. M., Adam, E. K., Pruessner, J. C., Wüst, S., … Hellhammer, D. H. (2016). Assessment of the cortisol awakening response: Expert consensus guidelines. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 63, 414–432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stalder, T., Steudte-Schmiedgen, S., Alexander, N., Klucken, T., Vater, A., Wichmann, S., … Miller, R. (2017). Stress-related and basic determinants of hair cortisol in humans: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 77, 261–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.12.017CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2001). Adolescent development. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 83–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stepanikova, I., & Oates, G. R. (2017). Perceived discrimination and privilege in health care: The role of socioeconomic status and race. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 52, S86–S94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, S., & Han, M. (2005). Perceived school environments, perceived discrimination, and school performance among children of Mexican immigrants. Children and Youth Services Review, 27(1), 51–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stroud, L. R., Foster, E., Papandonatos, G. D., Handwerger, K., Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., & Niaura, R. (2009). Stress response and the adolescent transition: Performance versus peer rejection stressors. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 47–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A., Nadal, K. L., & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62, 271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Syed, M., & Azmitia, M. (2008). A narrative approach to ethnic identity in emerging adulthood: Bringing life to the identity status model. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taber-Thomas, B., & Pérez-Edgar, K. (2015). Emerging adulthood brain development. The Oxford Handbook of Emerging Adulthood, 126–141.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. D., Casten, R., Flickinger, S. M., Roberts, D., & Fulmore, C. D. (1994). Explaining the school performance of African-American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4(1), 21–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uchino, B., Cacioppo, J., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. (1996). The relationship between social support and physiological processes: A review with emphasis on underlying mechanisms and implications for health. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 488–531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2011). Ethnic identity. In Schwartz, S. J., Luyckx, K., & Vignoles, V. L. (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research (pp. 791–809). New York, NY: Springer.10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_33CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Douglass, S., Updegraff, K. A., & Marsiglia, F. F. (2018a). A small-scale randomized efficacy trial of the identity project: Promoting adolescents’ ethnic–racial identity exploration and resolution. Child Development, 89, 862–870.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Kornienko, O., Bayless, S. D., & Updegraff, K. A. (2018b). A universal intervention program increases ethnic–racial identity exploration and resolution to predict adolescent psychosocial functioning one year later. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47, 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Quintana, S. M., Lee, R. M., Cross, W. E., Rivas-Drake, D., Schwartz, S. J., … Seaton, E. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity during adolescence and into young adulthood: An integrated conceptualization. Child Development, 85, 21–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vedhara, K., Hyde, J., Gilchrist, I., Tytherleigh, M., & Plummer, S. (2000). Acute stress, memory, attention and cortisol. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 535–549.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wentzel, K. R., Jablansky, S., & Scalise, N. R. (2020). Peer social acceptance and academic achievement: A meta-analytic study. Journal of Educational Psychology.Google Scholar
Wong, C. A., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. (2003). The influence of ethnic discrimination and ethnic identification on African American adolescents’ school and socioemotional adjustment. Journal of Personality, 71, 1197–1232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeiders, K. H., Causadias, J. M., & White, R. M. B. (2018). The health correlates of culture: Examining the association between ethnic–racial identity and diurnal cortisol slopes. Journal of Adolescent Health, 62, 349–351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeiders, K. H., Doane, L. D., & Roosa, M. W. (2012). Perceived discrimination and diurnal cortisol: Examining relations among Mexican American adolescents. Hormones and Behavior, 61, 541–548. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.01.018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeiders, K. H., Hoyt, L. T., & Adam, E. K. (2014). Associations between self-reported discrimination and diurnal cortisol rhythms among young adults: The moderating role of racial–ethnic minority status. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 50, 280–288. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.08.023CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed