Hostname: page-component-7dd5485656-g8tfn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-10-31T03:15:42.799Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Self and personality in old and very old age: A sample case of resilience?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 March 2009

U. M. Staudinger  and
W. Fleeson
U. M. Staudinger*
Affiliation:
Max Planck Institute for Human Development and Education, Berlin, Germany
W. Fleeson
Affiliation:
Max Planck Institute for Human Development and Education, Berlin, Germany
*
U. M. Staudinger, Max Planck Institute for Human Development and Education, Lentzeallee 94, 14195 Berlin, Germany (E-mail: staudinger@MPIB-Berlin.MPG.DE).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Characteristics and processes linked to self and personality functioning are considered as illustrations of resilience in old and very old age. Two self-related processes—coping styles and personal life investment—are investigated as examples of internal resources that the aging person may bring to bear when dealing with the risks of old age. Beyond chronological age as a rough approximation of such risks, this article specifically explores the relationship between physical risks, self-related processes, and level of adaptation in a representative sample of 70- to 103-year-olds. The central hypothesis is that self-related processes may buffer age-related risks, and may to a certain degree preserve or avoid large drops in levels of adaptation. Working on a correlational level of analysis, results indicated that well into old age, the self is able to maintain a relatively high level of adaptation. Also, under conditions of a high degree of physical constraints: (a) both coping styles and personal life investment were associated with resilience; (b) beyond particular coping styles, a selective flexibility in coping was associated with resilience. The degree of physical constraints moderated (c) the adaptiveness of several coping styles and of personal life investment; and (d) extreme physical constraints appeared to limit the possibilities of resilience. The effect of physical constraints on level of adaptation in turn was moderated by age. Consistent with a life-span theory of development, results are interpreted as an example of evidence for the resilience of the aging self and its limits.

Information

Type
Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 8 , Issue 4: Developmental Pathways: Diversity in Process and Outcome , Fall 1996 , pp. 867 - 885
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Aldwin, C. M. (1991). Does age affect the stress and coping process? Implications of age differences in perceived control. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 46, 174–180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baltes, M. M. & Carstensen, L. L. (1996). The process of successful aging. Ageing and Society, 16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P. B. (1968). Longitudinal and cross-sectional sequences in the study of age and generation effects. Human Development, 11, 145–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P. B. (1987). Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology: On the dynamics between growth and decline. Developmental Psychology, 23, 611–626.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1990). Psychological perspectives on successful aging: The model of selective optimization with compensation. In Baltes, P. B. & Baltes, M. M. (Eds.), Successful aging: Perspectives from the beliavioral sciences (pp. 1–34). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P. B., & Graf, P. (1996). Psychological aspects of aging: Facts and frontiers. In Magnusson, D. (ed.). The life-span development of individuals: Behavioral, neurobiological and psychosocial perspectives (pp. 427–460). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Baltes, P. B., Lindenberger, U., & Staudinger, U. M. (in press). Life-span theory in developmental psychology. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Theoretical models of human development. Volume 1 of the Handbook of Child Psychology (5th ed.), Editor-in-Chief: William Damin. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Baltes, P. B., Mayer, K. U., Helmchen, H., & Steinha-gen-Thiessen, E. (1996). Die Berliner Altersstudie (BASE): Überblick und Einführung [The Berlin aging study: Introduction and overview]. In Mayer, K. U. & Baltes, P. B. (Eds.), Die Berliner Altersstudie [The Berlin aging study] (pp. 21–54). Berlin: Akademic Verlag.Google Scholar
Bengtson, V. L., Reedy, M. N., & Gordon, C. (1985). Aging and self-conceptions: Personality processes and social contexts. In Birrcn, J. E. & Schaie, K. W. (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (pp. 544–593). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.Google Scholar
Birren, J. E. (1983). Aging in America: Roles for Psychology. American Psychologist, 38, 298–299.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boesch, E. E. (1976). Psychopathologie des Alltags [The psychopathology of everyday life]. Bern: Huber.Google Scholar
Brandtstädter, J., & Baltes-Götz, B. (1990). Personal control over development and quality of life perspectives in adulthood. In Baltes, P. B. & Baltes, M. M. (Eds.), Successful aging: Perspectives from the behavioral sciences (pp. 197–224). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandtstädter, J., & Greve, W. (1994). The aging self: Stabilizing and protective processes. Developmental Review, 14, 52–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandtstädter, J., & Renner, G. (1990). Tenacious goal pursuit and flexible goal adjustment: Explication and age-related analysis of assimilative and accommodative models of coping. Psychology and Aging, 5, 58–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cantor, N., & Blanton, H. (1996). Effortful pursuit of personal goals in daily life. In Gollwitzer, H. M. & Bargh, J. A. (Eds.), The psychology of action (pp. 338–360). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Cantor, N., & Fleeson, W. (1991). Life tasks and self-regulatory processes. In Maehr, M.-L. & Pintrich, P. R. (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement (Vol. 7, pp. 327–369), Greenwich, CT: Jai Press.Google Scholar
Cantor, N., & Fleeson, W. (1994). Social intelligence and intelligent goal pursuit: A cognitive slice of motivation. In Spaulding, W. (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 41, pp. 125–179). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Carstensen, L. L., & Freund, A. M. (1994). Commentary: The resilience of the aging self. Developmental Review, 14, 81–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Garmezy, N. (Eds.). (1993). Milestones in the development of resiliency [Special Issue]. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 497–774.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Costa, P. T. J., Zondermann, A. B., McCrae, R. R., Cornoni-Huntley, J., Locke, B. Z., & Barbano, H. E. (1987). Longitudinal analyses of psychological well-being in a national sample: Stability of mean levels. Journal of Gerontology, 42, 50–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emmons, R. A. (1996). Striving and feeling: personal goals and subjective well-being. In Gollwitzer, H. M. & Bargh, J. A. (Eds.), The psychology of action (pp. 313–337). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Filipp, S.-H., & Buch-Bartos, K. (1994). Vergleichsprozesse und Lebenszufriedenheit im Alter: Ergebnisse einer Pilotstudie [Comparison processes and life satisfaction in aging: Results of a pilot study]. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie, 26, 22–34.Google Scholar
Filipp, S. H., & Klauer, T. (1991). Subjective well-being in the face of critical life events: The case of successful coping. In Strack, F., Argyle, M., & Schwarz, N. (Eds.), The social psychology of subjective well-being (Vol. 21, pp. 213–234). Oxford: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Pimley, S., & Novacek, J. (1987). Age differences in stress and coping processes. Psychology and Aging, 2, 171–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forster, J. M., & Gallagher, D. (1986). An exploratory study comparing depressed and nondepressed elders coping strategies. Journals of Gerontology, 41, 91–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freund, A. M. (1995). Wer bin ich? Die Sebstdefinition alter Menschen [Who am I? The self-definition of old people]. Berlin: Sigma.Google Scholar
Garmezy, N. (1991). Resilience in children's adaptation to negative life events and stressed environments. Pediatric Annals, 20, 459–466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gollwitzer, H. M., & Bargh, J. A. (Eds.), The psychology of action. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hautzinger, M. (1988). Die CES-D Skala: Ein Depressionsmeβinstrument für Untersuchungen in der Allgemeinbevökerung [The CES-D Scale: A measurement instrument for the assessment of depression in the general population]. Diagnostica, 34, 167–173.Google Scholar
Havighurst, R. J. (1973). History of developmental psychology: Socialization and personality developmenl through the life-span. In Baltes, P. B. & Schaie, K. W. (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology: Personality and socializaton (pp. 3–24), New York: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational and volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11, 101–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heckhausen, J., & Krueger, J. (1993). Developmental expectations for the self and most other people: Age-grading in three functions of social comparison. Developmental Psychology, 29, 539–548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R. (1995). A life-span theory of control. Psychological Review, 102, 284–304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirsch, B. J. (1980). Natural support systems and coping with major life changes. American Journal of Community Psychology, 8, 159–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobfall, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources. American Psychologist, 44, 513–524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holahan, C. K. (1988). Relation of life goals at age 70 to activity participation and health and psychological well-being among Terman's gifted men and women. Psychology and Aging, 3, 286–291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Irion, J. C., & Blanchard-Fields, F. (1987). A cross-sectional comparison of adaptive coping in adulthood. Journals of Gerontology, 42, 502–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahana, E. F., Kahana, B., & Young, R. (1987). Strategies of coping and postinstitutional outcomes. Research on Aging, 9, 182–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koenig, H. G., George, L. K., & Siegler, I. C. (1988). The use of religion and other emotion-regulating coping strategies among older adutls. The Gerontologist, 28, 303–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krämer, W. (1994). Altem und gesundheitswesen: Probleme und Lösungen aus der Sicht der Gesundheitsökonomie [Aging and the health system: Problems and solutions from health economy]. In Baltes, P. B., Mittelstraβ, J., & Staudinger, U. M. (Eds.), Alter und Altern: Ein interdisziplinärer Studientext zur Gerontologie (pp. 563–580). Berlin: DeGruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kruse, A. (1994). Kompetenz im Alter. Psychologische Perspektiven der modernen Gerontologie. Kusterdingen: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag.Google Scholar
Kuhl, J. (1984). Motivational aspects of achievement motivation and learned helplessness: Toward a comprehensive theory of action control. In Maher, B. A. & Maher, W. B. (Eds.), Progress in experimental personality research (Vol. 13, pp. 99–171). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Labouvie-Vief, G., Hakim-Larson, J., & Hobart, C. J. (1987). Age, ego level, and the life-span development of coping and defense processes. Psychology and Aging, 2, 286–293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lachman, M. E. (1986a). Locus of control in aging research: A case for multidimensional and domain-specific assessment. Psychology and Aging, 1, 34–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lawton, M. P. (1975). The Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale: A revision. Journal of Gerontology, 30, 85–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Lehr, U., & Thomae, H. (1987). Formen seelischen Alterns. Stuttgart: Enke.Google Scholar
Lewin, K. (1926). Untersuchungen zur Handlungs-und Affektpsychologie. Psycholgische Forschung, 7, 294–385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindenberger, U., & Baltes, P. B. (1994). Aging and intelligence. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of intelligence (Vol. 1, pp. 52–66). New York: Mac-millan.Google Scholar
Lindenberger, U., Gilberg, R., Pötter, U., Little, T. D., & Baltes, P. B. (1996). Stichprobenselektivität und Generalisierbarkeit der Ergebnisse in der Berliner Altersstudie [Sample selectivity and generalizability of the result from the Berlin Aging Study]. In Mayer, K. U. & Baltes, P. B. (Eds.), Die Berliner Altersstudie [The Berlin aging study] (pp. 85–108). Berlin: Akademie Verlag.Google Scholar
Linville, P. W. (1987). Self-complexity as a cognitive buffer against stress-related depression and illness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahoney, F. I., & Barthel, D. W. (1965). Functional evaluation: The Barthel Index. Maryland State Medical Journal, 14, 61–65.Google ScholarPubMed
Marsiske, M., Lang, F. R., Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1995). Selective optimization with compensation: Life-span perspectives on successful human development. In Dixon, R. A. & Bäckman, L. (Eds.), Compensating for psychological deficits and declines: Managing losses and promoting gains (pp. 35–79). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Mayer, K. U., Baltes, P. B., Baltes, M. M., Borchelt, M., Delius, J., Helmchen, H., Linden, M., Smith, J., Staudinger, U. M., Steinhagen-Thiessen, E., & Wagner, M. (1996). Wissen Uber das Alter(n): Eine Zwischen-bilanz der Berliner Altersstudie [Knowledge about age and aging: A first report from the Berlin Aging Study]. In Mayer, K. U., & Baltes, P. B. (Eds.), Die Berliner Altersstudie (pp. 560–638). Berlin: Akademie Verlag.Google Scholar
McCrae, R. R. (1989). Age differences and changes in the use of coping mechanisms. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 44, 919–928.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDougal, W. (1923). Outline of psychology. New York: Scribner.Google Scholar
Nesselroade, J. R. (1991). The warp and the woof of the developmental fabric. In Downs, R. M., Liben, L. S., & Palermo, D. S. (Eds.), Visions of aesthetics, the environment and development: the legacy of Joachim Wohlwill (pp. 213–240). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Nesselroade, J. R., & Featherman, D. L. (1991). Intraindividual variability in older adults' depression scores: Some implications for developmental theory and longitudinal research. In Magnusson, D., Bergman, L., Rudinger, G., & Torestad, B. (Eds.), Problems and methods in longitudinal research: Stability and change (pp. 47–66). London: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neugarten, B. L., Moore, J. W., & Lowe, J. C. (1965). Age norms, age constraints, and adult socialization. American Journal of Sociology, 70, 710–717.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palys, T. S., & Little, B. R. (1983). Perceived life satisfaction and the organization of personal project systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 1221–1230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pfeiffer, E. (1977). Psychopathology and social pathology. In Birren, J. E. & Schaie, K. W. (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (pp. 650–671). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.Google Scholar
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rapkin, B. D., & Fischer, K. (1992). Personal goals of older adults: Issues in assessment and prediction. Psychology and Aging, 7, 127–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reischies, F. M., & Lindenberger, U. (1996). Grenzen und Potentiale kognitiver Leistungsfähigkeit im Alter [Limits and potentials of cognitive ability in old age]. In Mayer, K. U. & Baltes, P. B. (Eds.), Die Berliner Altersstudie [The Berlin aging study] (pp. 351–377). Berlin: Akademie Verlag.Google Scholar
Rokeach, M., & Ball-Rokeach, S. J. (1989). Stability and change in American value priorities. 1968–1981. American Psychologist, 44, 775–784.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M. (1987). Reilience in the face of adversity. Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 598–611.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaie, K. W. (1965). A general model for the study of developmental problems. Psychological Bulletin, 64, 92–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siegler, R. S. (1994). Cognitive variability: A key to understanding cognitive development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 3, 1–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. (1993). Differential psychological aging: Profiles of the old and very old. Aging and Society, 13, 551–587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. (1996). Altern aus psychologischer Perspektive: Trends und Profile im hohen Alter [Aging from a psychological perspective: Trends and profiles in old age]. In Mayer, K. U. & Baltes, P. B. (Eds.), Die Berliner Altersstudie [The Berlin aging study] (pp. 221–250). Berlin: Akademie Verlag.Google Scholar
Staudinger, U. M., & Fleeson, W. (1996). Life investment in a sample of 20 to 105 year olds. Berlin: Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungsforschung.Google Scholar
Staudinger, U. M., Freund, A., Linden, M., & Maas, I. (1996). Selbst, Persönlichkeit und Lebensgestaltung: Psychologische Widerstandsfähigkeit und Vulnerabilität [Self, personality, and flie management: Psychological resilience and variability]. In Mayer, K. U. & Baltes, P. B. (Eds.), Die Berliner Altersstudie [The Berlin aging study] (pp. 321–350). Berlin: Akademie Verlag.Google Scholar
Staudinger, U. M., Marsiske, M., & Baltes, P. B. (1995). Resilience and reserve capacity in later adulthood: Potentials and limits of development across the life span. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (Vol. 2, Risk, disorder, and adaptation; pp. 801–847). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Suls, J. N., & Mullen, B. (1982). From the cradle to the grave: Comparison and self-evaluation. In Suls, J. N. (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 1, pp. 97–128). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vaillant, G. E. (1977). Adaptation to life. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.Google Scholar
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of Positive and Negative effect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, J. V. (1989). Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 231–248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar