Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-jr42d Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T12:40:50.251Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Developmental cascade effects of interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed mothers: Longitudinal associations with toddler attachment, temperament, and maternal parenting efficacy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 April 2017

Elizabeth D. Handley ,
Louisa C. Michl-Petzing ,
Fred A. Rogosch ,
Dante Cicchetti  and
Sheree L. Toth
Elizabeth D. Handley*
Affiliation:
University of Rochester Mt. Hope Family Center
Louisa C. Michl-Petzing
Affiliation:
University of Rochester Mt. Hope Family Center
Fred A. Rogosch
Affiliation:
University of Rochester Mt. Hope Family Center
Dante Cicchetti
Affiliation:
University of Rochester Mt. Hope Family Center University of Minnesota Institute of Child Development
Sheree L. Toth
Affiliation:
University of Rochester Mt. Hope Family Center
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Elizabeth D. Handley, Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester, 187 Edinburgh Street, Rochester, NY 14608; E-mail: elizabeth_handley@urmc.rochester.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Using a developmental cascades framework, the current study investigated whether treating maternal depression via interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) may lead to more widespread positive adaptation for offspring and mothers including benefits to toddler attachment and temperament, and maternal parenting self-efficacy. The participants (N = 125 mother–child dyads; mean mother age at baseline = 25.43 years; 54.4% of mothers were African American; mean offspring age at baseline = 13.23 months) were from a randomized controlled trial of IPT for a sample of racially and ethnically diverse, socioeconomically disadvantaged mothers of infants. Mothers were randomized to IPT (n = 97) or an enhanced community standard control group (n = 28). The results of complier average causal effect modeling showed that engagement with IPT led to significant decreases in maternal depressive symptoms at posttreatment. Moreover, reductions in maternal depression posttreatment were associated with less toddler disorganized attachment characteristics, more adaptive maternal perceptions of toddler temperament, and improved maternal parenting efficacy 8 months following the completion of treatment. Our findings contribute to the emerging literature documenting the potential benefits to children of successfully treating maternal depression. Alleviating maternal depression appears to initiate a cascade of positive adaptation among both mothers and offspring, which may alter the well-documented risk trajectory for offspring of depressed mothers.

Type
Special Issue Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 29 , Special Issue 2: Attachment in the Context of Atypical Caregiving: Harnessing Insights From a Developmental Psychopathology Perspective , May 2017 , pp. 601 - 615
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

We are grateful to the National Institute of Mental Health (MH067792, Principal Investigators D.C. and S.L.T.) for support of this work.

References

Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Alegria, M., Chatterji, P., Wells, K., Cao, Z., Chen, C. N., Takeuchi, D., … Meng, X. L. (2008). Disparity in depression treatment among racial and ethnic minority populations in the United States. Psychiatric Services, 59, 1264–1272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM- IV (4th ed). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Andrade, L., Caraveo-Anduaga, J. J., Berglund, P., Bijl, R. V., Graaf, R. D., Vollebergh, W., … Wittchen, H. (2003). The epidemiology of major depressive episodes: Results from the International Consortium of Psychiatric Epidemiology (ICPE) Surveys. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 12, 3–21.Google Scholar
Ardelt, M., & Eccles, J. S. (2001). Effects of mothers’ parental efficacy beliefs and promotive parenting strategies on inner-city youth. Journal of Family Issues, 22, 944–972.Google Scholar
Atkinson, L., Paglia, A., Coolbear, J., Niccols, A., Parker, K. C., & Guger, S. (2000). Attachment security: A meta-analysis of maternal mental health correlates. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 1019–1040.Google Scholar
Bagby, R. M., Ryder, A. G., Schuller, D. R., & Marshall, M. B. (2004). The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale: Has the gold standard become a lead weight? American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 2163–2177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beardslee, W. R., Versage, E. M., & Gladstone, T. R. (1998). Children of affectively ill parents: A review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 1134–1141.Google Scholar
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the BDI-II. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Bijttebier, P., & Roeyers, H. (2009). Temperament and vulnerability to psychopathology: Introduction to the Special Section. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 305–308.Google Scholar
Campbell, S. B., Morgan-Lopez, A. A., Cox, M. J., & McLoyd, V. C. (2009). A latent class analysis of maternal depressive symptoms over 12 years and offspring adjustment in adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 479–493.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, E. A. (1998). A prospective longitudinal study of attachment disorganization/disorientation. Child Development, 69, 1107–1128.Google Scholar
Carter, A. S., Garrity-Rokous, F. E., Chazan-Cohen, R., Little, C., & Briggs-Gowan, M. J. (2001). Maternal depression and comorbidity: Predicting early parenting, attachment security, and toddler social-emotional problems and competencies. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 18–26.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (1998). Maternal depressive disorder and contextual risk: Contributions to the development of attachment insecurity and behavior problems in toddlerhood. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 283–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1995). Developmental psychopathology and disorders of affect. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychology: Risk, disorder, and adaptation (Vol. 2, pp. 369–420). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1997). Transactional ecological systems in developmental psychopathology. In Luthar, S. S., Burack, J. A., Cicchetti, D., & Weisz, J. R. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Perspectives on adjustment, risk and disorder (pp. 317–349). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1998). The development of depression in children and adolescents. American Psychologist, 53, 221–241.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Connell, A. M. (2009). Employing complier average causal effect analytic methods to examine effects of randomized encouragement trials. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 35, 253–259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connell, A. M., & Goodman, S. H. (2002). The association between psychopathology in fathers versus mothers and children's internalizing and externalizing behavior problems: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 746–773.Google Scholar
Cuijpers, P., Weitz, E., Karyotaki, E., Garber, J., & Andersson, G. (2015). The effects of psychological treatment of maternal depression on children and parental functioning: A meta-analysis. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 24, 237–245.Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., & Cicchetti, D. (1990). Towards a transactional model of relations between attachment and depression. In Greenberg, M., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool year: Theory, research, and intervention (pp. 339–372). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (1994). Maternal depression and child development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 73–122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, E. M., Keller, P. S., & Davies, P. T. (2005). Towards a family process model of maternal and paternal depressive symptoms: Exploring multiple relations with child and family functioning. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 479–489.Google Scholar
De Pauw, S. S., & Mervielde, I. (2010). Temperament, personality and developmental psychopathology: A review based on the conceptual dimensions underlying childhood traits. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 41, 313–329.Google Scholar
Downey, G., & Coyne, J. C. (1990). Children of depressed parents: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 50–76.Google Scholar
Dozois, D. J. A., Dobson, K. S., & Ahnberg, J. L. (1998). A psychometric evaluation of the Beck Depression Inventory—II. Psychological Assessment, 10, 83–89.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Valiente, C., Spinrad, T. L., Cumberland, A., Liew, J., Reiser, M., … Losoya, S. H. (2009). Longitudinal relations of children's effortful control, impulsivity, and negative emotionality to their externalizing, internalizing, and co-occurring behavior problems. Developmental Psychology, 45, 988–1008.Google Scholar
Elkin, I., Shea, M. T., Watkins, J. T., Imber, S. D., Sotsky, S. M., Collins, J. F., … Parloff, M. B. (1989). National Institute of Mental Health treatment of depression collaborative research program: General effectiveness of treatments. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 971–982.Google Scholar
Fagot, B. I., & Kavanagh, K. (1993). Parenting during the second year: Effects of children's age, sex, and attachment classification. Child Development, 64, 258–271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fearon, R. P., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Lapsley, A. M., & Roisman, G. I. (2010). The significant of insecure attachment and disorganization in the development of children's externalizing behavior: A meta-analytic study. Child Development, 81, 435–456.Google Scholar
Forman, D. R., O'Hara, M. W., Stuart, S., Gorman, L. L., Larsen, K. E., & Coy, K. C. (2007). Effective treatment for postpartum depression is not sufficient to improve the developing mother–child relationship. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 585–602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garber, J., Ciesla, J. A., McCauley, E., Diamond, G., & Schloredt, K. A. (2011). Remission of depression in parents: Links to healthy functioning in their children. Child Development, 82, 226–243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garber, J., Clarke, G. N., Weersing, V. R., Beardslee, W. R., Brent, D. A., Gladstone, T. R., … Iyengar, S. (2009). Prevention of depression in at-risk adolescents: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 301, 2215–2224.Google Scholar
Gelfand, D. M., & Teti, D. M. (1990). The effects of maternal depression on children. Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 329–353.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, H. H. (1996). Studying temperament via construction of the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire. Child Development, 67, 218–235.Google Scholar
Goodman, S. H., & Gotlib, I. H. (1999). Risk for psychopathology in the children of depressed mothers: A developmental model for understanding mechanisms of transmission. Psychological Review, 106, 458–490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, S. H., & Gotlib, I. H. (2002). Children of depressed parents: Alternative pathways to risk for psychopathology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Goodman, S. H., Rouse, M. H., Connell, A. M., Broth, M. R., Hall, C. M., & Heyward, D. (2011). Maternal depression and child psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 1–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gravener, J. A., Rogosch, F. A., Oshri, A., Narayan, A. J., Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2012). The relations among maternal depressive disorder, maternal expressed emotion, and toddler behavior problems and attachment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 803–813.Google Scholar
Groh, A. M., Roisman, G. I., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Fearon, R. (2012). The significant of insecure and disorganized attachment for children's internalizing symptoms: A meta-analytic study. Child Development, 83, 591–610.Google Scholar
Gunlicks, M. L., & Weissman, M. M. (2008). Change in child psychopathology with improvement in parental depression: A systematic review. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 379–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hasin, D. S., Goodwin, R. D., Stinson, F. S., & Grant, B. F. (2005). Epidemiology of major depressive disorder: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcoholism and Related Conditions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 1097–1106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayes, L. J., Goodman, S. H., & Carlson, E. (2013). Maternal antenatal depression and infant disorganized attachment at 12 months. Attachment & Human Development, 15, 133–153.Google Scholar
Heneghan, A. M., Silver, E. J., Bauman, L. J., Westbrook, L. E., & Stein, R. E. (1998). Depressive symptoms in inner-city mothers of young children: Who is at risk? Pediatrics, 102, 1394–1400.Google Scholar
Hoffman, C., Crnic, K. A., & Baker, J. K. (2006). Maternal depression and parenting: Implications for children's emergent emotion regulation and behavioral functioning. Parenting: Science and Practice, 6, 271–295.Google Scholar
Hollon, S. D., & Ponniah, K. (2010). A review of empirically supported psychological therapies for mood disorders in adults. Depression and Anxiety, 27, 891–932.Google Scholar
Izzo, C., Weiss, L., Shanahan, T., & Rodriguez-Brown, F. (2000). Parental self-efficacy and social support as predictors of parenting practices and children's socioemotional adjustment in Mexican immigrant families. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 20, 197–213.Google Scholar
Jacobvitz, D., & Hazen, N. (1999). Developmental pathways from infant disorganization to childhood peer relationships. In Solomon, J. & George, C. (Eds.), Attachment disorganization (pp. 127–159). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Jo, B. (2002). Estimation of intervention effects with noncompliance: Alternative model specifications. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 27, 385–409.Google Scholar
Jo, B. (2008a). Causal inference in randomized experiments with mediational processes. Psychological Methods, 13, 314–336.Google Scholar
Jo, B. (2008b). Bias mechanisms in intention-to-treat analysis with data subject to treatment noncompliance and missing outcomes. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 33, 158–185.Google Scholar
Jones, T. L., & Prinz, R. J. (2005). Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent and child adjustment: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 341–363.Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C. (2003). Epidemiology of women and depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 74, 5–13.Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Koretz, D., Merikangas, K. R., … Wang, P. S. (2003). The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Journal of the American Medical Association, 289, 3095–3105.Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Swartz, M., Blazer, D. G., & Nelson, C. B. (1993). Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey: I. Lifetime prevalence, chronicity and recurrence. Journal of Affective Disorders, 29, 85–96.Google Scholar
Klerman, G. L., Weissman, M. M., Rounsaville, B. J., & Chevron, E. S. (1984). Interpersonal psychotherapy of depression. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Kohlhoff, J., & Barnett, B. (2013). Parenting self-efficacy: Links with maternal depression, infant behaviour and adult attachment. Early Human Development, 89, 249–256.Google Scholar
Krupnick, J. L., Green, B. L., Stockton, P., Miranda, J., Krause, E., & Mete, M. (2008). Group interpersonal psychotherapy for low-income women with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychotherapy Research, 18, 497–507.Google Scholar
Lieb, R., Isensee, B., Höfler, M., Pfister, H., & Wittchen, H. U. (2002). Parental major depression and the risk of depression and other mental disorders in offspring: A prospective-longitudinal community study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 365–374.Google Scholar
Little, R. J., & Yau, L. H. (1998). Statistical techniques for analyzing data from prevention trials: Treatment of no-shows using Rubin's causal model. Psychological Methods, 3, 147–159.Google Scholar
Lovejoy, M. C., Graczyk, P. A., O'Hare, E., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 561–592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyons-Ruth, K., Connell, D. B., Grunebaum, H. U., & Botein, S. (1990). Infants at social risk: Maternal depression and family support services as mediators of infant development and security of attachment. Child Development, 61, 85–98.Google Scholar
MacDonald, H. Z., Beeghly, M., Grant-Knight, W., Augustyn, M., Woods, R. W., Cabral, H., … Frank, D. A. (2008). Longitudinal association between infant disorganized attachment and childhood posttraumatic stress symptoms. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 493–508.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1990). Procedures for identifying infants as disorganized/disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation. In Greenberg, M. T., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Martins, C., & Gaffan, E. A. (2000). Effects of early maternal depression on patterns of infant–mother attachment: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 737–746.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Developmental cascades. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 491–495.Google Scholar
McConley, R. L., Mrug, S., Gilliland, M. J., Lowry, R., Elliott, M. N., Schuster, M. A., … Franklin, F. A. (2011). Mediators of maternal depression and family structure on child BMI: Parenting quality and risk factors for child overweight. Obesity, 19, 345–352.Google Scholar
McGrath, J. M., Records, K., & Rice, M. (2008). Maternal depression and infant temperament characteristics. Infant Behavior and Development, 31, 71–80.Google Scholar
Michl, L. C., Handley, E. D., Rogosch, F., Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2015). Self-criticism as a mechanism linking childhood maltreatment and maternal efficacy beliefs in low-income mothers with and without depression. Child Maltreatment, 20, 291–300.Google Scholar
Morris, D. W., Rush, A. J., Jain, S., Fava, M., Wisniewski, S. R., Balasubramani, G. K., … Trivedi, M. H. (2007). Diurnal mood variation in outpatients with major depressive disorder: Implications for DSM-V from an analysis of the Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression Study data. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 68, 1–478.Google Scholar
Mulcahy, R., Reay, R. E., Wilkinson, R. B., & Owen, C. (2010). A randomised control trial for the effectiveness of group interpersonal psychotherapy for postnatal depression. Archives of Women's Mental Health, 13, 125–139.Google Scholar
Muris, P., & Ollendick, T. H. (2005). The role of temperament in the etiology of child psychopathology. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8, 271–289.Google Scholar
Murray, L. (1992). The impact of postnatal depression on infant development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 543–561.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2013). Mplus user's guide (6th ed). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T. (2006). Temperament and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 395–422.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R., Forgatch, M. S., & DeGarmo, D. S. (2010). Cascading effects following intervention. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 949–970.Google Scholar
Pauli-Pott, U., Mertesacker, B., Bade, U., Bauer, C., & Beckmann, D. (2000). Contexts of relations of infant negative emotionality to caregiver's reactivity/sensitivity. Infant Behavior and Development, 23, 23–39.Google Scholar
Pauli-Pott, U., Mertesacker, B., Bade, U., Haverkock, A., & Beckmann, D. (2003). Parental perceptions and infant temperament development. Infant Behavior and Development, 26, 27–48.Google Scholar
Peltz, J. S., Rogge, R. D., Rogosch, F. A., Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2015). The benefits of child-parent psychotherapy to marital satisfaction. Families, Systems, & Health, 33, 372–382.Google Scholar
Persons, J. B., Thase, M. E., & Crits-Christoph, P. (1996). The role of psychotherapy in the treatment of depression: Review of two practice guidelines. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 283–290.Google Scholar
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.Google Scholar
Robins, L. N., Cottler, L., Bucholz, K., & Compton, W. (1995). Diagnostic Interview Schedule for DSM-IV. St. Louis, MO: Washington University.Google Scholar
Robins, L. N., Helzer, J. E., Croughan, J., & Ratcliff, K. S. (1981). National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule: Its history, characteristics, and validity. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 381–389.Google Scholar
Robins, L. N., Helzer, J. E., Ratcliff, K. S, & Seyfried, W. (1982). Validity of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule, Version II: DSM-III diagnoses. Psychological Medicine, 12, 855–870.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K. (1981). Measurement of temperament in infancy. Child Development, 52, 569–578.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Posner, M. I. (2006). Temperament, attention, and developmental psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 2. Developmental neuroscience (2nd ed., pp. 465–501). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147–177.Google Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Connell, A., Dishion, T. J., Wilson, M. N., & Gardner, F. (2009). Improvements in maternal depression as a mediator of intervention effects on early childhood problem behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 417–439.Google Scholar
Siefert, K., Bowman, P. J., Heflin, C. M., Danziger, S., & Williams, D. R. (2000). Social and environmental predictors of maternal depression in current and recent welfare recipients. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 510–522.Google Scholar
Storch, E. A., Roberti, J. W., & Roth, D. A. (2004). Factor structure, concurrent validity, and internal consistency of the Beck Depression Inventory—Second Edition in a sample of college students. Depression and Anxiety, 19, 187–189.Google Scholar
Stuart, S., & Robertson, M. (2003). Interpersonal psychotherapy. London: Edward Arnold.Google Scholar
Swartz, H. A., Frank, E., Zuckoff, A., Cyranowski, J. M., Houck, P. R., Cheng, Y., … Shear, M. K. (2008). Brief interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed mothers whose children are receiving psychiatric treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 1155–1162.Google Scholar
Talbot, N. L., Conwell, Y., O'Hara, M. W., Stuart, S., Ward, E. A., Gamble, S. A., … Tu, X. (2005). Interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed women with sexual abuse histories: A pilot study in a community mental health center. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 193, 847–850.Google Scholar
Teti, D. M., & Gelfand, D. M. (1991). Behavioral competence among mothers of infants in the first year: The mediational role of maternal self-efficacy. Child Development, 62, 918–929.Google Scholar
Teti, D. M., Gelfand, D. M., Messinger, D. S., & Isabella, R. (1995). Maternal depression and the quality of early attachment: An examination of infants, preschoolers, and their mothers. Developmental Psychology, 31, 364–376.Google Scholar
Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F. A., Manly, J. T., & Cicchetti, D. (2006). The efficacy of toddler-parent psychotherapy to reorganize attachment in the young offspring of mothers with major depressive disorder: A randomized preventive trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 1006–1016.Google Scholar
Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F. A., Oshri, A., Gravener-Davis, J., Sturm, R., & Morgan-Lopez, A. A. (2013). The efficacy of interpersonal psychotherapy for depression among economically disadvantaged mothers. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4, Pt. 1), 1065–1078.Google Scholar
Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F. A., Sturge-Apple, M., & Cicchetti, D. (2009). Maternal depression, children's attachment security, and representational development: An organizational perspective. Child Development, 80, 192–208.Google Scholar
Turney, K. (2011). Labored love: Examining the link between maternal depression and parenting behaviors. Social Science Research, 40, 399–415.Google Scholar
van IJzendoorn, M. H., Schuengel, C., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (1999). Disorganized attachment in early childhood: Meta-analysis of precursors, concomitants, and sequelae. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 225–250.Google Scholar
Verdeli, H., Ferro, T., Wickramaratne, P., Greenwald, S., Blanco, C., & Weissman, M. M. (2004). Treatment of depressed mothers of depressed children: Pilot study of feasibility. Depression and Anxiety, 19, 51–58.Google Scholar
Weissman, M. M., Markowitz, J. C., & Klerman, G. L. (2000). Comprehensive guide to interpersonal psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Weissman, M. M., Pilowsky, D. J., Wickramaratne, P. J., Talati, A., Wisniewski, S. R., Fava, M., … Rush, J. (2006). Remissions in maternal depression and child psychopathology: A STAR* D-child report. Journal of the American Medical Association, 295, 1389–1398.Google Scholar
Weissman, M. M., Wickramaratne, P., Nomura, Y., Warner, V., Pilowsky, D., & Verdeli, H. (2006). Offspring of depressed parents: 20 years later. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1001–1008.Google Scholar
Weissman, M. M., Wickramaratne, P., Pilowsky, D. J., Poh, E., Hernandez, M., Batten, L. A., … Blier, P. (2014). The effects on children of depressed mothers’ remission and relapse over 9 months. Psychological Medicine, 44, 2811–2824.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wickramaratne, P., Gameroff, M. J., Pilowsky, D. J., Hughes, C. W., Garber, J., Malloy, E., … Fava, M. (2011). Children of depressed mothers 1 year after remission of maternal depression: Findings from the STAR* D-Child study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 593–602.Google Scholar
Yuan, K. H., & Bentler, P. M. (2000). Three likelihood-based methods for mean and covariance structure analysis with nonnormal missing data. Sociological Methodology, 30, 165–200.Google Scholar