Hostname: page-component-7dd5485656-c8zdz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-10-26T14:38:37.488Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Differential physiological sensitivity to child compliance behaviors in abusing, neglectful, and non-maltreating mothers

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 May 2019

Jessica Norman Wells ,
Elizabeth A. Skowron ,
Carolyn M. Scholtes  and
David S. DeGarmo
Jessica Norman Wells
Affiliation:
University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
Elizabeth A. Skowron*
Affiliation:
University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
Carolyn M. Scholtes
Affiliation:
University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
David S. DeGarmo
Affiliation:
University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: Elizabeth A. Skowron, College of Education 1215, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR97403-1215; E-mail: eskowron@uoregon.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We examined time-ordered associations between children's compliance behavior and maternal respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) in a sample of 127 child-maltreating (physical abuse, physical neglect, emotional abuse) and 94 non-maltreating mothers and their preschool-aged children. Child prosocial and aversive compliance behaviors and maternal RSA were continuously collected during a joint challenge task. Child behavior and mother RSA were longitudinally nested within-person and subjected to multilevel modeling (MLM), with between-person child maltreatment subtype and level of inconsistent parenting modeled as moderators. Both child maltreatment type and inconsistent parenting moderated the effects of child compliance on maternal RSA. Increases in children's prosocial compliance behaviors led to decreasing RSA in physically abusive mothers 30s later (i.e., increasing arousal), but predicted increases in non-maltreating mothers’ RSA (i.e., increasing calm). Inconsistent parenting (vacillating between autonomy-support and strict control) also moderated the effects of children's compliance behavior on maternal physiology, weakening the effects of child prosocial compliance on subsequent maternal RSA. These findings highlight variations in mothers’ physiological sensitivity to their children's prosocial behavior that may play a role in the development of coercive cycles, and underscore the need to consider individual differences in parents’ physiological sensitivity to their children to effectively tailor interventions across the spectrum of risk.

Keywords

child maltreatmentcomplianceparentingrespiratory sinus arrhythmia

Information

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 32 , Issue 2 , May 2020 , pp. 531 - 543
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Barnett, D., Manly, J.T., & Cicchetti, D. (1993). Defining child maltreatment: The interface between policy and research. In Cicchetti, D. & Toth, S.L. (Eds.), Advances in applied developmental psychology: Child abuse, child development and social policy. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corp.Google Scholar
Bateson, G., Jackson, D. D., Haley, J., & Weakland, J. (1963). A note on the double bind – 1962. Family Process, 2, 154–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beauchaine, T. (2001). Vagal tone, development, and Grays motivational theory: Toward an integrated model of autonomic nervous system functioning in psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 183–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beauchaine, T.P., & Thayer, J.F. (2015). Heart rate variability as a transdiagnostic biomarker of psychopathology. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 98, 338–350.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55, 83–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J. (1993). Etiology of child maltreatment: A developmental ecological analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 413.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benjamin, L. S. (1974). Structural analysis of social behavior. Psychological Review, 81, 392–425.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benjamin, L. S. (1996). A clinician-friendly version of the Interpersonal Circumplex: Structural Analysis of Social Behavior (SASB). Journal of Personality Assessment, 66, 248–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benjamin, L. S, & Cushing, G. (2000) Reference manual for coding social interactions in terms of Structural Analysis of Social Behavior. Salt Lake City: University of Utah.Google Scholar
Berntson, G. G., Cacioppo, J. T., Quigley, K. S., & Fabro, V. T. (1994). Autonomic space and psychophysiological response. Psychophysiology, 3, 44–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berntson, G. G., Thomas Bigger, J., Eckberg, D. L., Grossman, P., Kaufmann, P. G., Malik, M., … & Der Molen, M. V. (1997). Heart rate variability: Origins, methods, and interpretive caveats. Psychophysiology, 34, 623–648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biesanz, J. C., Deeb-Sossa, N., Papadakis, A. A., Bollen, K. A., & Curran, P. J. (2004). The role of coding time in estimating and interpreting growth curve models. Psychological Methods, 9, 30–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Black, D. A., Heyman, R. E., & Smith Slep, A. M. (2001). Risk factors for child physical abuse. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 62, 121–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowen, M. (1978). Family therapy in clinical practice. New York, NY: Jason Aronson.Google Scholar
Boyce, W. T., & Ellis, B. J. (2005). Biological sensitivity to context: I. An evolutionary developmental theory of the origins and functions of stress reactivity. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 271–301.5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bugental, D. B. (2009). Predicting & preventing child maltreatment: A biocognitive transactional approach. In Sameroff, A. (Ed.), The transactional model of development: How children and contexts shape each other (pp. 97–115). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burke, J. D., Pardini, D. A., & Loeber, R. (2008). Reciprocal relationships between parenting behavior and disruptive psychopathology from childhood through adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 679–692.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burt, S., McGue, M., Krueger, R., & Iacono, W. G. (2005). How are parent-child conflict and childhood externalizing symptoms related over time? Results from a genetically informative cross-lagged study. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 145–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butler, E. A., Wilhelm, F. H., & Gross, J. J. (2006). Respiratory sinus arrhythmia, emotion, and emotion regulation during social interaction. Psychophysiology, 43, 612–622.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chamberlain, P., & Patterson, G. R. (1995). Discipline and child compliance in parenting. In Bornstein, M. H. & Bornstein, M. H. (Eds.), Handbook of Parenting, Vol. 4: Applied and Practical Parenting (pp. 205–225). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Lynch, M. (1993). Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children's development. Psychiatry, 56, 96–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connell, A. M., Dawson, G. C., Danzo, S., & McKillop, H. N. (2017). The psychophysiology of parenting: Individual differences in autonomic reactivity to positive and negative mood inductions and observed parental affect during dyadic interactions with children. Journal of Family Psychology, 31, 30–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Creaven, A. M., Skowron, E. A., Hughes, B. M., Howard, S., & Loken, E. (2014). Dyadic concordance in mother and preschooler resting cardiovascular function varies by risk status. Developmental Psychobiology, 56, 142–152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crittenden, P., & DiLalla, D. (1988). Compusive compliance: The development of an inhibitory coping strategy in infancy. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 585–599.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crouch, J. L., Hiraoka, R., McCanne, T. R., Reo, G., Wagner, M. F., Krauss, A., … & Skowronski, J. J. (2018). Heart rate and heart rate variability in parents at risk for child physical abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33, 1629–1652.Google Scholar
Crouter, A. C., & Booth, A. (Eds.). (2003). Children's influence on family dynamics: The neglected side of family relationships. Mahwah, NJ; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cui, L., Morris, A. S., Harrist, A. W., Larzelere, R. E., & Criss, M. M. (2015). Dynamic changes in parent affect and adolescent cardiac vagal regulation: A real-time analysis. Journal of Family Psychology, 29, 180–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeGarmo, D. S. (2010). Coercive and prosocial fathering, antisocial personality, and growth in children's postdivorce noncompliance. Child Development, 81, 503–516.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diaz, A., & Petersen, A. C. (2014). Institute of Medicine report: New directions in child abuse and neglect research. Journal of the American Medical Association Pediatrics, 168, 101–102.Google ScholarPubMed
Disbrow, M. A., Doerr, H., & Caulfield, C. (1977). Measuring the components of parents' potential for child abuse and neglect. Child Abuse and Neglect, 1, 279–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1990). Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science, 250, 1678–1683.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Egeland, B., Breitenbucher, M., & Rosenberg, D. (1980). Prospective study of the significance of life stress in the etiology of child abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 48, 195–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frodi, A. M., & Lamb, M. E. (1980). Child abusers’ responses to infant smiles and cries. Child Development, 51, 238–241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gardner, F. E. (1989). Inconsistent parenting: Is there evidence for a link with children's conduct problems? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 17, 223–233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geisler, F., Kubiak, T., Siewert, K., & Weber, H. (2013). Cardiac vagal tone is associated with social engagement and self-regulation. Biological Psychology, 93, 279–286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gershoff, E. A. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 539–579.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gross, H. E., Shaw, D. S., & Moilanen, K. L. (2008) Reciprocal associations between boys’ externalizing problems and mothers’ depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 693–709.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hakman, M., Chaffin, M., Funderburk, B., & Silovsky, J. F. (2009). Change trajectories for parent-child interaction sequences during parent-child interaction therapy for child physical abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33, 461–470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawes, D. J., Dadds, M. R., Frost, A. D., & Hasking, P. A. (2011). Do childhood callous-unemotional traits drive change in parenting practices? Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40, 507–518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill-Soderlund, A. L., Mills-Koonce, W. R., Propper, C., Calkins, S. D., Granger, D. A., Moore, G. A., … Cox, M. J. (2008). Parasympathetic and sympathetic responses to the strange situation in infants and mothers from avoidant and securely attached dyads. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 361–376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Humphrey, L. L., & Benjamin, L. S. (1986). Using structural analysis of social behavior to assess critical but elusive family processes: A new solution to an old problem. American Psychologist, 41(9), 979–989.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ingjaldsson, J. T., Laberg, J. C., & Thayer, J. F. (2003). Reduced heart rate variability in chronic alcohol abuse: Relationship with negative mood, chronic thought suppression, and compulsive drinking. Biological Psychiatry, 54, 1427–1436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joosen, K. J., Mesman, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Pieper, S., Zeskind, P. S., & Van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2013a). Physiological reactivity to infant crying and observed maternal sensitivity. Infancy, 18, 414–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joosen, K. J., Mesman, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M.H. (2013b). Maternal overreactive sympathetic nervous system responses to repeated infant crying predicts risk for impulsive harsh discipline of infants. Child Maltreatment, 18, 252–263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalb, L.M., & Loerber, R. (2003). Child disobedience and noncompliance: A review. Pediatrics, 111, 641–652.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaufman, J., & Ziegler, E. (1989). The intergenerational transmission of child abuse. In Cicchetti, D. & Carlson, V. (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 129–150). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kavanagh, K. A., Youngblade, L., Reid, J. B., & Fagot, B. I. (1988). Interactions between children and abusive versus control parents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 17, 137–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keenan, K., Shaw, D., Delliquadri, E., Giovannelli, J., & Walsh, B. (1998). Evidence for the continuity of early problems behaviours: Application of a developmental model. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 441–452.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kerr, M. E., & Bowen, M. (1988). Family evaluation. New York, NY: Norton.Google Scholar
Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 706–716.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kimonis, E. R., Frick, P. J., & McMahon, R. J. (2014). Conduct and oppositional defiant disorders. In Mash, E. J. & Barkley, R. A. (Eds.), Child psychopathology (pp. 145–179). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G. (1991). Socialization and temperament in the development of guilt and conscience. Child Development, 62, 1379–1392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., & Aksan, N. (1995). Mother-child mutually positive affect, the quality of child compliance to requests and prohibitions, and maternal control as correlates of early internalization. Child Development, 66, 236–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kopp, C. B. (1982). Antecedents of self-regulation: A developmental perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18, 199–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kreibig, S. D. (2010). Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion: A review. Biological Psychology, 84, 394–421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larrson, H., Viding, E., Rijsdijk, F. V., & Plomin, R. (2008). Relationships between parental negativity and childhood antisocial behavior over time: A bidirectional effects model in a longitudinal genetically informative design. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 633–645.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leerkes, E. M., Su, J., Calkins, S. D., Supple, A. J., O'Brien, M., & Fiese, B. H. (2016). Pathways by which mothers’ physiological arousal and regulation while caregiving predict sensitivity to infant distress. Journal of Family Psychology, 30, 769–779.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lorber, M. F., & O'Leary, S. G. (2005). Mediated paths to overreactive discipline: Mothers’ experienced emotion, appraisals, and physiological responses. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 972–981.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., Connell, D. B., Zoll, D., & Stahl, J. (1987). Infants at social risk: Relations among infant maltreatment, maternal behavior, and infant attachment behavior. Developmental Psychology, 23, 223–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lytton, H. (1980). Parent-child interaction: The socialization process observed in twin and singleton families. New York: Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Developmental cascades. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 491–495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCanne, T. R., & Hagstrom, A. H. (1996). Physiological hyperreactivity to stressors in physical child abusers and individuals at risk for being physically abusive. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 1, 345–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mills-Koonce, W. R., Propper, C., Gariépy, J. L., Barnett, M., Moore, G. A., Calkins, S., & Cox, M. J. (2009). Psychophysiological correlates of parenting behavior in mothers of young children. Developmental Psychobiology, 51, 650–661.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, G. A., Hill-Soderlund, A. L., Propper, C. B., Calkins, S. D., Mills-Koonce, W. R., & Cox, M. J. (2009). Mother–infant vagal regulation in the face-to-face still-face paradigm is moderated by maternal sensitivity. Child Development, 80, 209–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Musser, E. D., Ablow, J. C., & Measelle, J. R. (2012). Predicting maternal sensitivity: The roles of postnatal depressive symptoms and parasympathetic dysregulation. Infant Mental Health Journal, 33, 350–359.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Obradovic, J., Bush, N. R., Stamperdahl, J., Adler, N. E., & Boyce, W. T. (2010). Biological sensitivity to context: The interactive effects of stress reactivity and family adversity on socioemotional behavior and school readiness. Child Development, 81, 270–289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pardini, D. A., Fite, P. J., & Burke, J. D. (2008). Bidirectional associations between parenting practices and conduct problems in boys from childhood to adolescence: The moderating effect of age and African-American ethnicity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 647–662.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paschall, K. W., & Mastergeorge, A. M. (2016). A review of 25 years of research in bidirectionality in parent-child relationships: An examination of methodological approaches. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 40, 442–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia Press.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B., & Dishion, T. J. (1992). Antisocial boys. Eugene, OR: Castalia Press.Google Scholar
Pettit, G. S., & Arsiwalla, D. D. (2008). Commentary on special section on “bidirectional parent child relationships”: The continuing evolution of dynamic, transactional models of parenting and youth behavior problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 711–718.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollak, S. D., Cicchetti, D., Hornung, K., & Reed, A. (2000). Recognizing emotion in faces: Developmental effects of child abuse and neglect. Developmental Psychology, 36, 679–688.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porges, S. W. (2001). The polyvagal theory: phylogenetic substrates of a social nervous system. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 42, 123–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raudenbush, S. W., Bryk, A. S., Cheong, Y. F., Congdon, R. T. Jr., & du Toit, M. (2013). HLM 7: Hierarchical linear and nonlinear modeling. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International, Inc.Google Scholar
Reid, J. B., & Patterson, G. R. (1989). The development of antisocial behavioral patterns in childhood and adolescence. European Journal of Personality, 3, 107–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reijman, S., Alink, L. R., Block, L. H. C. D., Werner, C. D., Maras, A., Rijnberk, C., … & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2014). Autonomic reactivity to infant crying in maltreating mothers. Child Maltreatment, 19, 101–112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogosch, F. A., Cicchetti, D., & Aber, J. L. (1995). The role of child maltreatment in early deviations in cognitive and affective processing abilities and later peer relationship problems. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 591–609.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sameroff, A. (1975). Transactional models in early social relations. Human Development, 18, 65–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Serbin, L. A., Kingdon, D., Ruttle, P. L., & Stack, D. M. (2015). The impact of children's internalizing and externalizing problems on parenting: Transactional processes and reciprocal change over time. Development and Psychopathology, 27, 969–986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaw, D. S., & Bell, R. Q. (1993). Developmental theories of parental contributors to antisocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21, 493–518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (2003). Applied longitudinal data analysis: Modeling change and event occurrence. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skowron, E.A. (2015). Understanding autonomic physiology and relationship processes in high-risk families. In Noone, R. & Papero, D. (Eds.), The family emotional system: An integrative concept for theory, science, and practice. Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Skowron, E. A., Cipriano-Essel, E., Benjamin, L. S., Pincus, A. L., & Van Ryzin, M. J. (2013). Cardiac vagal tone and quality of parenting show concurrent and time-ordered associations that diverge in abusive, neglectful, and non-maltreating mothers. Couple and Family Psychology: Research and Practice, 2, 95–115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skowron, E. A., Kozlowski, J. M., & Pincus, A. L. (2010). Differentiation, self–other representations, and rupture–repair processes: Predicting child maltreatment risk. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57, 304–316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, J.D., Woodhouse, S., Clark, C., & Skowron, E.A. (2016). Attachment status and mother-preschooler parasympathetic response to the Strange Situation Procedure. Biological Psychology, 114, 39–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stifter, C. A., Spinrad, T., & Braungart-Rieker, J. (1999). Toward a developmental model of child compliance: The role of emotion regulation in infancy. Child Development, 70, 21–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stith, S. M., Liu, T., Davies, L. C., Boykin, E. L., Alder, M. C., Harris, J. M., … & Dees, J. E. M. E. G. (2009). Risk factors in child maltreatment: A meta-analytic review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14, 13–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toth, S. L., Maughan, A., Manly, J. T., Spagnola, M., & Cicchetti, D. (2002). The relative efficacy of two interventions in altering maltreated preschool children's representational models: Implications for attachment theory. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 877–908.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trickett, P. K., & Kuczynski, L. (1986). Children's misbehaviors and parental discipline strategies in abusive and nonabusive families. Developmental Psychology, 22, 115–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trickett, P. K., & Susman, E. J. (1988). Parental perceptions of child-rearing practices in physically abusive and nonabusive families. Developmental Psychology, 24, 270–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhoeven, M., Junger, M., van Aken, C., Deković, M., & van Aken, M. A. (2010). Parenting and children's externalizing behavior: Bidirectionality during toddlerhood. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31, 93–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wahler, R. G., & Dumas, J. E. (1986). Maintenance factors in coercive mother-child interactions: The compliance and predictability hypotheses. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 19, 13–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weisman, O., Zagoory-Sharon, O., & Feldman, R. (2012). Oxytocin administration to parent enhances infant physiological and behavioral readiness for social engagement. Biological Psychiatry, 72, 982–989.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, S. R., Rack, J. J., Shi, X., & Norris, A. M. (2008). Comparing physically abusive, neglectful, and non-maltreating parents during interaction with their children: A meta analysis of observational studies. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32, 897–911.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed