Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-gtxcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-17T19:02:57.701Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Parenting practices in middle childhood mediate the relation between growing up with a parent having bipolar disorder and offspring psychopathology from childhood into early adulthood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 September 2017

Vanessa Iacono ,
Leah Beaulieu ,
Sheilagh Hodgins  and
Mark A. Ellenbogen
Vanessa Iacono
Affiliation:
Concordia University, Montréal
Leah Beaulieu
Affiliation:
Concordia University, Montréal
Sheilagh Hodgins
Affiliation:
Université de Montréal Karolinska Institute, Stockholm
Mark A. Ellenbogen*
Affiliation:
Concordia University, Montréal
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Mark A. Ellenbogen, Centre for Research in Human Development, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montréal, Québec H4B 1R6, Canada; E-mail: mark.ellenbogen@concordia.ca.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The offspring of parents with bipolar disorder (OBD) are at high risk for developing mental disorders. In addition to genetic factors, environmental risk is purported to be associated with these negative outcomes. However, few studies have examined this relation. Using concurrent and longitudinal data, we examined if support, structure, and control provided by parents in middle childhood mediated the relation between having a parent with or without bipolar disorder, and offspring mental health. The sample included 145 offspring (77 OBD, 68 controls) aged 4 to 14 years and their parents. Parent and teacher ratings of child behavior were collected, and diagnostic assessments were conducted in offspring 12 years later (n = 101). Bootstrapping analyses showed that low levels of structure mediated the relation between having a parent with bipolar disorder and elevated internalizing and externalizing difficulties during middle childhood. For the longitudinal outcomes, parental control emerged as the strongest mediator of the relation between parents’ bipolar disorder and offspring psychopathology. Suboptimal childrearing may have different immediate and enduring consequences on mental health outcomes in the OBD. Parental structure has robust effects on emotional and behavioral problems in middle childhood, while levels of control promote psychological adjustment in the OBD as they mature.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 30 , Issue 2 , May 2018 , pp. 635 - 649
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This research was supported by a grant from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (to M.A.E.). Dr. Ellenbogen was supported by a Canada Research Chair appointment from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. Ms. Iacono was supported by a Canadian Graduate Scholarship from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC). We thank Dr. Sophie Coté and Leandra Hallis for their invaluable assistance on this project and all of the families for so graciously taking the time to participate in our research.

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA School-Age Forms & Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Alink, L. R., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Mesman, J., Juffer, F., & Koot, H. M. (2008). Cortisol and externalizing behavior in children and adolescents: Mixed meta-analytic evidence for the inverse relation of basal cortisol and cortisol reactivity with externalizing behavior. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 427–450.Google Scholar
Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., Smith, J. M., Gibb, B. E., & Neeren, A. M. (2006). Role of parenting and maltreatment histories in unipolar and bipolar mood disorders: Mediation by cognitive vulnerability to depression. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 9, 23–64. doi:10.1007/s10567-006-0002-4Google Scholar
Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., Urosevic, S., Walshaw, P. D., Nusslock, R., & Neeren, A. M. (2005). The psychosocial context of bipolar disorder: Environmental, cognitive, and developmental risk factors. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 1043–1075. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.06.006Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Angold, A., Erkanli, A., Silberg, J., Eaves, L., & Costello, E. J. (2002). Depression scale scores in 8–17-year-olds: Effects of age and gender. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 1052–1063. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00232Google Scholar
Bacchini, D., Miranda, M. C., & Affuso, G. (2011). Effects of parental monitoring and exposure to community violence on antisocial behavior and anxiety/depression among adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 269–292. doi:10.1177/0886260510362879Google Scholar
Barkley, R. A. (1988). Child behavior rating scales and checklists. In Rutter, M. & Tuma, A. H. (Eds.), Assessment and diagnosis in child psychopathology (pp. 113–155). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Barron, E., Sharma, A., Le, C. J., Rushton, S., Close, A., Kelly, T., … Le, C. A. (2014). Family environment of bipolar families: A UK study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 152–154, 522–525. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.08.016Google Scholar
Basco, M. R., Bostic, J. Q., Davies, D., Rush, A. J., Witte, B., Hendrickse, W., & Barnett, V. (2000). Methods to improve diagnostic accuracy in a community mental health setting. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1599–1605.Google Scholar
Beardslee, W. R., Gladstone, T. R., & O'Connor, E. E. (2011). Transmission and prevention of mood disorders among children of affectively ill parents: A review. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 50, 1098–1109. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.07.020Google Scholar
Begley, C. E., Annegers, J. F., Swann, A. C., Lewis, C., Coan, S., Schnapp, W. B., & Bryant-Comstock, L. (2001). The lifetime cost of bipolar disorder in the US: An estimate for new cases in 1998. Pharmacoeconomics, 19, 483–495.Google Scholar
Birmaher, B., Axelson, D., Monk, K., Kalas, C., Goldstein, B., Hickey, M. B., … Brent, D. (2009). Lifetime psychiatric disorders in school-aged offspring of parents with bipolar disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66, 287–296. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.546Google Scholar
Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371–399. doi:0084-6570/02/0201-0371$14.00Google Scholar
Bridley, A., & Jordan, S. S. (2012). Child routines moderate daily hassles and children's psychological adjustment. Children's Health Care, 41, 129–144. doi:10.1080/02739615.2012.657040Google Scholar
Brietzke, E., Mansur, R. B., Soczynska, J. K., Kapczinski, F., Bressan, R. A., & McIntyre, R. S. (2012). Towards a multifactorial approach for prediction of bipolar disorder in at risk populations. Journal of Affective Disorders, 140, 82–91. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.02.016Google Scholar
Broidy, L. M., Nagin, D. S., Tremblay, R. E., Bates, J. E., Brame, B., Dodge, K. A., … Vitaro, F. (2003). Developmental trajectories of childhood disruptive behaviors and adolescent delinquency: A six-site, cross-national study. Developmental Psychology, 39, 222–245. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.39.2.222Google Scholar
Calam, R., Jones, S., Sanders, M. R., Dempsey, R., & Sadhnani, V. (2012). Parenting and the emotional and behavioural adjustment of young children in families with a parent with bipolar disorder. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 40, 425–437. doi:10.1017/S1352465812000094Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A., Bromet, E. J., & Sievers, S. (2000). Phenomenology and outcome of subjects with early- and adult-onset psychotic mania. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 213–219.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A., & Weintraub, S. (1993). Childhood behavior problems and bipolar disorder—Relationship or coincidence? Journal of Affective Disorders, 28, 143–153.Google Scholar
Carrasco, M. A., Rodriguez, M. A., Del Barrio, M. V., & Holgado, F. P. (2011). Relative and absolute stability in perceived parenting behaviour: A longitudinal study with children and adolescents. Psychological Reports, 108, 149–166. doi:10.2466/02.09.10.21.PR0.108.1.149-166Google Scholar
Chang, K. D., Blasey, C., Ketter, T. A., & Steiner, H. (2001). Family environment of children and adolescents with bipolar parents. Bipolar Disorders, 3, 73–78. doi:10.1034/j.13995618.2001.030205.xGoogle Scholar
Coldwell, J., Pike, A., & Dunn, J. (2006). Household chaos—Links with parenting and child behaviour. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 1116–1122. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01655.xGoogle Scholar
Comasco, E., Åslund, C., Oreland, L., & Nilsson, K. W. (2013). Three-way interaction effect of 5-HTTLPR, BDNF Val66Met, and childhood adversity on depression: A replication study. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 23, 1300–1306. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.01.010Google Scholar
Das Gupta, R., & Guest, J. F. (2002). Annual cost of bipolar disorder to UK society. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 227–233. doi:10.1192/bjp.180.3.227Google Scholar
Deater-Deckard, K., Mullineaux, P. Y., Beekman, C., Petrill, S. A., Schatschneider, C., & Thompson, L. A. (2009). Conduct problems, IQ, and household chaos: A longitudinal multi-informant study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1301–1308. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02108.xGoogle Scholar
De Los Reyes, A., & Kazdin, A. E. (2005). Informant discrepancies in the assessment of childhood psychopathology: A critical review, theoretical framework, and recommendations for further study. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 483. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.4.483Google Scholar
DeMulder, E. K., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1991). Attachment with affectively ill and well mothers: Concurrent behavioral correlates. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 227–242. doi:10.1017/S0954579400005277Google Scholar
DeVore, E. R., & Ginsburg, K. R. (2005). The protective effects of good parenting on adolescents. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 17, 460–465.Google Scholar
Dix, T., & Meunier, L. N. (2009). Depressive symptoms and parenting competence: An analysis of 13 regulatory processes. Developmental Review, 29, 45–68. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2008.11.002Google Scholar
Dore, G., & Romans, S. E. (2001). Impact of bipolar affective disorder on family and partners. Journal of Affective Disorders, 67, 147–158. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(01)00450-5Google Scholar
Duffy, A., Alda, M., Hajek, T., Sherry, S. B., & Grof, P. (2010). Early stages in the development of bipolar disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 42, 127. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2009.05.022.Google Scholar
Duffy, A., Horrocks, J., Doucette, S., Keown-Stoneman, C., McCloskey, S., & Grof, P. (2014). The developmental trajectory of bipolar disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 204, 122–128. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.113.126706Google Scholar
Ellenbogen, M. A., & Hodgins, S. (2004). The impact of high neuroticism in parents on children's psychosocial functioning in a population at high risk for major affective disorder: A family environmental pathway of intergenerational risk. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 113–136. doi:10.1017/S0954579404044438Google Scholar
Ellenbogen, M. A., & Hodgins, S. (2009). Structure provided by parents in middle childhood predicts cortisol reactivity in adolescence among the offspring of parents with bipolar disorder and controls. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 773–785. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.12.011Google Scholar
Ellenbogen, M. A., Hodgins, S., Linnen, A. M., & Ostiguy, C. S. (2011). Elevated daytime cortisol levels: A biomarker of subsequent major affective disorder? Journal of Affective Disorders, 132, 265–269. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.01.007Google Scholar
Ellenbogen, M. A., Hodgins, S., & Walker, C.-D. (2004). High levels of cortisol among adolescent offspring of parents with bipolar disorder: A pilot study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 99–106. doi:10.1016/S0306-4530(02)00135-XGoogle Scholar
Else-Quest, N. M., Clark, R., & Tresch Owen, M. (2011). Stability in mother–child interactions from infancy through adolescence. Parenting, 11, 280–287. doi:10.1080/15295192.2011.613724Google Scholar
Ferreira, G. S., Moreira, C. R., Kleinman, A., Nader, E. C., Gomes, B. C., Teixeira, A. M., … Caetano, S. C. (2013). Dysfunctional family environment in affected versus unaffected offspring of parents with bipolar disorder. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 47, 1051–1057. doi:10.1177/0004867413506754Google Scholar
First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. W. (2002). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I Disorders, research version, non-patient edition (SCID-I/NP). New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research.Google Scholar
Freed, R. D., Tompson, M. C., Wang, C. H., Otto, M. W., Hirshfeld-Becker, D. R., Nierenberg, A. A., & Henin, A. (2015). Family functioning in the context of parental bipolar disorder: Associations with offspring age, sex, and psychopathology. Journal of Family Psychology, 29, 108–118. doi:10.1037/fam0000048Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., Christian, R. E., & Wootton, J. M. (1999). Age trends in the association between parenting practices and conduct problems. Behavior Modification, 23, 106–128. doi:10.1177/0145445599231005Google Scholar
Galambos, N. L., Barker, E. T., & Almeida, D. M. (2003). Parents do matter: Trajectories of change in externalizing and internalizing problems in early adolescence. Child Development, 74, 578–594. doi:0009-3920/2003/7402-0017Google Scholar
Goodyer, I. M., Bacon, A., Ban, M., Croudace, T., & Herbert, J. (2009). Serotonin transporter genotype, morning cortisol and subsequent depression in adolescents. British Journal of Psychiatry, 195, 39–45. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.108.054775Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hillegers, M. H., Burger, H., Wals, M., Reichart, C. G., Verhulst, F. C., Nolen, W. A., & Ormel, J. (2004). Impact of stressful life events, familial loading and their interaction on the onset of mood disorders: Study in a high-risk cohort of adolescent offspring of parents with bipolar disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 185, 97–101. doi:10.1192/bjp.185.2.97Google Scholar
Hodges, K. (1981). Catalog of selected documents in psychology series: Vol. 11. The Child Assessment Schedule: A diagnostic interview for research and clinical use. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Hodges, K., McKnew, D., Cytryn, L., Stern, L., & Kline, J. (1982). The Child Assessment Schedule (CAS) Diagnostic Interview: A report on reliability and validity. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 21, 468–473. doi:10.1016/S0002-7138(09)60796-2Google Scholar
Hodgins, S., Faucher, B., Zarac, A., & Ellenbogen, M. (2002). Children of parents with bipolar disorder: A population at high risk for major affective disorders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 11, 533–553. doi:10.1016/S1056-4993(02)00002-0Google Scholar
Hoeve, M., Dubas, J. S., Eichelsheim, V. I., Van der Laan, P. H., Smeenk, W., & Gerris, J. R. (2009). The relationship between parenting and delinquency: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 749–775. doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9310-8Google Scholar
Inoff-Germain, G., Nottelmann, E. D., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1992). Evaluative communications between affectively ill and well mothers and their children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20, 189–212. doi:10.1007/BF00916548Google Scholar
Jewell, J. D., & Stark, K. D. (2003). Comparing the family environments of adolescents with conduct disorder or depression. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 12, 77–89. doi:10.1023/A:1021310226400Google Scholar
Kaufman, J., & Schweder, A. E. (2004). The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children: Present and Lifetime version (K-SADS-PL). In Hilsenroth, M. J. & Segal, D. L. (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychological assessment: Vol. 2. Personality assessment (pp. 247–255). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Kieseppä, T., Partonen, T., Haukka, J., Kaprio, J., & Lönnqvist, J. (2014). High concordance of bipolar I disorder in a nationwide sample of twins. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1814–1821. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.10.1814Google Scholar
Kim-Cohen, J., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Pawlby, S. J., & Caspi, A. (2005). Maternal depression and children's antisocial behavior: Nature and nurture effects. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 173–181. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.2.173Google Scholar
Klimes-Dougan, B., Ronsaville, D., Wiggs, E. A., & Martinez, P. E. (2006). Neuropsychological functioning in adolescent children of mothers with a history of bipolar or major depressive disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 957–965. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.031Google Scholar
Kroes, G., Veerman, J. W., & De Bruyn, E. E. (2003). Bias in parental reports? Maternal psychopathology and the reporting of problem behavior in clinic-referred children. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 19, 195. doi:10.1027//1015-5759.19.3.195Google Scholar
Lam, D., Donaldson, C., Brown, Y., & Malliaris, Y. (2005). Burden and marital and sexual satisfaction in the partners of bipolar patients. Bipolar Disorders, 7, 431–440. doi:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2005.00240.xGoogle Scholar
Lanza, H. I., & Drabick, D. A. (2011). Family routine moderates the relation between child impulsivity and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 83–94. doi:10.1007/s10802-010-9447-5Google Scholar
Larsson, H., Viding, E., Rijsdijk, F., & Plomin, R. (2008). Relationships between parental negativity and childhood antisocial behavior over time: A bidirectional effects model in a longitudinal genetically informative design. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 633–645. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9151-2Google Scholar
Larzelere, R. E., Morris, A. S. E., & Harrist, A. W. (Eds.). (2013). Authoritative parenting: Synthesizing nurturance and discipline for optimal child development. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Linnen, A. M., aan het Rot, M., Ellenbogen, M. A., & Young, S. N. (2009). Interpersonal functioning in adolescent offspring of parents with bipolar disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 114, 122–130.Google Scholar
Mathews, C. A., & Reus, V. I. (2001). Assortative mating in the affective disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 42, 257–262. doi:10.1053/comp.2001.24575Google Scholar
McGuffin, P., Rijsdijk, F., Andrew, M., Sham, P., Katz, R., & Cardno, A. (2003). The heritability of bipolar affective disorder and the genetic relationship to unipolar depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 497–502. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.60.5.497Google Scholar
McKinney, C., & Renk, K. (2008). Differential parenting between mothers and fathers: Implications for late adolescents. Journal of Family Issues, 29, 806–827. doi:10.1177/0192513X07311222Google Scholar
McLeod, B. D., Weisz, J. R., & Wood, J. J. (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood depression: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 986–1003. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.03.001Google Scholar
McLeod, B. D., Wood, J. J., & Weisz, J. R. (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood anxiety: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 155–172. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.09.002Google Scholar
Mesman, E., Nolen, W. A., Reichart, C. G., Wals, M., & Hillegers, M. H. (2013). The Dutch bipolar offspring study: 12-year follow-up. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 542–549. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12030401Google Scholar
Meyer, S. E., Carlson, G. A., Wiggs, E. A., Ronsaville, D. S., Martinez, P. E., Klimes-Dougan, B., … Radke-Yarrow, M. (2006). A prospective high-risk study of the association among maternal negativity, apparent frontal lobe dysfunction, and the development of bipolar disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 573–589. doi:10.10170S0954579406060299Google Scholar
Miklowitz, D. J. (2007). The role of the family in the course and treatment of bipolar disorder. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 192–196. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00502.xGoogle Scholar
Miklowitz, D. J. (2010). Bipolar disorder: A family-focused treatment approach. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Miklowitz, D. J., & Cicchetti, D. (Eds.). (2006). A developmental perspective on bipolar disorder [Special Issue]. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 935–1317. doi:10.10170S0954579406060469Google Scholar
Miklowitz, D. J., & Cicchetti, D. (Eds.) (2010). Bipolar disorder: A developmental psychopathology approach. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Miklowitz, D. J., Goldstein, M. J., Nuechterlein, K. H., Snyder, K. S., & Mintz, J. (1988). Family factors and the course of bipolar affective disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 225–231. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1988.01800270033004Google Scholar
Miklowitz, D. J., Wisniewski, S. R., Miyahara, S., Otto, M. W., & Sachs, G. S. (2005). Perceived criticism from family members as a predictor of the one-year course of bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Research, 136, 101–111. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2005.04.005Google Scholar
Milevsky, A., Schlechter, M., Netter, S., & Keehn, D. (2007). Maternal and paternal parenting styles in adolescents: Associations with self-esteem, depression and life-satisfaction. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16, 39–47. doi:10.1007/s10826-006-9066-5Google Scholar
Morgan, Z., Brugha, T., Fryers, T., & Stewart-Brown, S. (2012). The effects of parent–child relationships on later life mental health status in two national birth cohorts. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47, 1707–1715. doi:10.1007/s00127-012-0481-1Google Scholar
Nijjar, R., Ellenbogen, M. A., & Hodgins, S. (2014). Personality, coping, risky behavior, and mental disorders in the offspring of parents with bipolar disorder: A comprehensive psychosocial assessment. Journal of Affective Disorders, 166, 315–323. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.04.047Google Scholar
Nijjar, R., Ellenbogen, M. A., & Hodgins, S. (2016). Sexual risk behaviors in the adolescent offspring of parents with bipolar disorder: Prospective associations with parents’ personality and externalizing behavior in childhood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s10802-015-0112-xGoogle Scholar
Nilsson, K. W., Comasco, E., Hodgins, S., Oreland, L., & Åslund, C. (2015). Genotypes do not confer risk for delinquency but rather alter susceptibility to positive and negative environmental factors: Gene–environment interactions of BDNF Val66Met, 5-HTTLPR, and MAOA-uVNTR. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 18, 1–10. doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyu107Google Scholar
Noom, M. J., Deković, M., & Meeus, W. H. (1999). Autonomy, attachment and psychosocial adjustment during adolescence: a double-edged sword? Journal of Adolescence, 22, 771–783. doi:10.1006/jado.1999.0269Google Scholar
Ostiguy, C. S., Ellenbogen, M. A., & Hodgins, S. (2012). Personality of parents with bipolar disorder and interpersonal functioning among their offspring: A prospective 10-year study. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 573–587. doi:10.1017/S095457941200017XGoogle Scholar
Ostiguy, C. S., Ellenbogen, M. A., Linnen, A. M., Walker, E. F., Hammen, C., & Hodgins, S. (2009). Chronic stress and stressful life events in the offspring of parents with bipolar disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 114, 74–84. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2008.08.006Google Scholar
Ostiguy, C. S., Ellenbogen, M. A., Walker, C. D., Walker, E. F., & Hodgins, S. (2011). Sensitivity to stress among the offspring of parents with bipolar disorder: A study of daytime cortisol levels. Psychological Medicine, 41, 2447–2457. doi:10.1017/S0033291711000523Google Scholar
Piko, B. F., & Balázs, M. Á. (2012). Authoritative parenting style and adolescent smoking and drinking. Addictive Behaviors, 37, 353–356. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2011.11.022Google Scholar
Pini, S., de Queiroz, V., Pagnin, D., Pezawas, L., Angst, J., Cassano, G. B., & Wittchen, H.-U. (2005). Prevalence and burden of bipolar disorders in European countries. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 15, 425–434. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2005.04.011Google Scholar
Post, R. M., Leverich, G. S., Xing, G., & Weiss, S. R. (2001). Developmental vulnerabilities to the onset and course of bipolar disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 581–598.Google Scholar
Radke-Yarrow, M. (1998). Children of depressed mothers: From early childhood to maturity. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rasic, D., Hajek, T., Alda, M., & Uher, R. (2013). Risk of mental illness in offspring of parents with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder: A meta-analysis of family high-risk studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin. Advance online publication. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbt114Google Scholar
Romero, S., DelBello, M. P., Soutullo, C. A., Stanford, K., & Strakowski, S. M. (2005). Family environment in families with versus families without parental bipolar disorder: A preliminary comparison study. Bipolar Disorders, 7, 617–622. doi:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2005.00270.xGoogle Scholar
Rucker, D. D., Preacher, K. J., Tormala, Z. L., & Petty, R. E. (2011). Mediation analysis in social psychology: Current practices and new recommendations. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5, 359–371. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00355.xGoogle Scholar
Schaffer, A., Cairney, J., Cheung, A., Veldhuizen, S., & Levitt, A. (2006). Community survey of bipolar disorder in Canada: Lifetime prevalence and illness characteristics. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 51, 9–16.Google Scholar
Schudlich, T. D. D. R., Youngstrom, E. A., Calabrese, J. R., & Findling, R. L. (2008). The role of family functioning in bipolar disorder in families. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 849–863.Google Scholar
Schultz, P. W., & Searleman, A. (2002). Rigidity of thought and behavior: 100 years of research. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 128, 165.Google Scholar
Simons, L. G., & Conger, R. D. (2007). Linking mother–father differences in parenting to a typology of family parenting styles and adolescent outcomes. Journal of Family Issues, 28, 212–241. doi:10.1177/0192513X06294593Google Scholar
Singh, M. K., Delbello, M. P., Stanford, K. E., Soutullo, C., Mcdonough-Ryan, P., McElroy, S. L., & Strakowski, S. M. (2007). Psychopathology in children of bipolar parents. Journal of Affective Disorders, 102, 131–136. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2007.01.004Google Scholar
Slater, M. A., & Power, T. G. (1987). Multidimensional assessment of parenting in single-parent families. In Vincent, J. P. (Ed.), Advances in family intervention, assessment and theory. Greenwich, CT: JAI.Google Scholar
Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B., Gibbon, M., & First, M. B. (1992). The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R (SCID): I. History, rationale, and description. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 624–629.Google Scholar
Vance, Y. H., Huntley, J. S., Espie, J., Bentall, R., & Tai, S. (2008). Parental communication style and family relationships in children of bipolar parents. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47, 355–359. doi:10.1348/014466508X282824Google Scholar
Verhulst, F. C., Althaus, M., & Berden, G. (1987). The child assessment schedule: Parent-child agreement and validity measures. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 28, 455–466. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1987.tb01766.xGoogle Scholar
Wals, M., Hillegers, M. H., Reichart, C. G., Verhulst, F. C., Nolen, W. A., & Ormel, J. (2005). Stressful life events and onset of mood disorders in children of bipolar parents during 14-month follow-up. Journal of Affective Disorders, 87, 253–263. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2005.04.006Google Scholar
Weich, S., Patterson, J., Shaw, R., & Stewart-Brown, S. (2009). Family relationships in childhood and common psychiatric disorders in later life: Systematic review of prospective studies. British Journal of Psychiatry, 194, 392–398. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.107.042515Google Scholar
Wilson, S., & Durbin, C. E. (2010). Effects of paternal depression on fathers’ parenting behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 167–180. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.10.007Google Scholar
Wood, J. J., McLeod, B. D., Sigman, M., Hwang, W. C., & Chu, B. C. (2003). Parenting and childhood anxiety: Theory, empirical findings, and future directions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 134–151. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00106Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2001). The World Health Report 2001—Mental health: New understandings, new hope. Geneva: Author.Google Scholar
Yap, M. B. H., & Jorm, A. F. (2015). Parental factors associated with childhood anxiety, depression, and internalizing problems: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 175, 424–440. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.01.050Google Scholar
Yap, M. B. H., Pilkington, P. D., Ryan, S. M., & Jorm, A. F. (2014). Parental factors associated with depression and anxiety in young people: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 156, 8–23. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.11.007Google Scholar