Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-skm99 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-28T13:11:39.566Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Stress and emotion recognition predict the relationship between a history of maltreatment and sensitive parenting behaviors: A moderated-moderation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 January 2024

Annie Bérubé Open the ORCID record for Annie Bérubé [Opens in a new window] ,
Jessica Pearson ,
Caroline Blais  and
Hélène Forget
Annie Bérubé*
Affiliation:
Université du Québec en Outaouais, Gatineau, QC, Canada Centre de recherche universitaire pour les jeunes enfants et leur famille, Trois-Rivieres, QC, Canada
Jessica Pearson
Affiliation:
Centre de recherche universitaire pour les jeunes enfants et leur famille, Trois-Rivieres, QC, Canada Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivieres, QC, Canada
Caroline Blais
Affiliation:
Université du Québec en Outaouais, Gatineau, QC, Canada
Hélène Forget
Affiliation:
Université du Québec en Outaouais, Gatineau, QC, Canada
*
Corresponding author: A. Bérubé; Email: annie.berube@uqo.ca
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Our study proposes to examine how stress and emotion recognition interact with a history of maltreatment to influence sensitive parenting behaviors. A sample of 58 mothers and their children aged between 2 and 5 years old were recruited. Parents’ history of maltreatment was measured using the Child Trauma Questionnaire. An emotion recognition task was performed. Mothers identified the dominant emotion in morphed facial emotion expressions in children. Mothers and children interacted for 15 minutes. Salivary cortisol levels of mothers were collected before and after the interaction. Maternal sensitive behaviors were coded during the interaction using the Coding Interactive Behavior scheme. Results indicate that the severity of childhood maltreatment is related to less sensitive behaviors for mothers with average to good abilities in emotion recognition and lower to average increases in cortisol levels following an interaction with their children. For mothers with higher cortisol levels, there is no association between a history of maltreatment and sensitive behaviors, indicating that higher stress reactivity could act as a protective factor. Our study highlights the complex interaction between individual characteristics and environmental factors when it comes to parenting. These results argue for targeted interventions that address personal trauma.

Keywords

childhood maltreatmentemotion recognitionstress reactivitysensitivity
Type
Regular Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , First View , pp. 1 - 11
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M., & Stayton, D. F. (1974). Infant-mother attachment and social development : Socialization as a product of reciprocal responsiveness to signals. In The integration of a child into a social world (pp. 99–135). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Alink, L. R., Cyr, C., & Madigan, S. (2019). The effect of maltreatment experiences on maltreating and dysfunctional parenting: A search for mechanisms. Development and Psychopathology, 31(1), 1–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Augustine, M. E., & Leerkes, E. M. (2019). Associations between maternal physiology and maternal sensitivity vary depending on infant distress and emotion context. Journal of Family Psychology, 33(4), 412–421. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000538 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bachmann, C. J., Beecham, J., O’Connor, T. G., Briskman, J., & Scott, S. (2022). A good investment: Longer-term cost savings of sensitive parenting in childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 63(1), 78–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Steele, H., Zeanah, C. H., Muhamedrahimov, R. J., Vorria, P., Dobrova-Krol, N. A., Steele, M., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Juffer, F., & Gunnar, M. R. (2011). III. Attachment and emotional development in institutional care : Characteristics and catch up. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 76(4), 62–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.2011.00628.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldwin, J. R., Reuben, A., Newbury, J. B., & Danese, A. (2019). Agreement between prospective and retrospective measures of childhood maltreatment: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 76(6), 584–593. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0097 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bérubé, A., Blais, C., Fournier, A., Turgeon, J., Forget, H., Coutu, S., & Dubeau, D. (2020). Childhood maltreatment moderates the relationship between emotion recognition and maternal sensitive behaviors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 102, 104432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104432 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brindle, R. C., Pearson, A., & Ginty, A. T. (2022). Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) relate to blunted cardiovascular and cortisol reactivity to acute laboratory stress: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 134, 104530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104530 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camilo, C., Vaz Garrido, M., & Calheiros, M. M. (2021). Recognizing children’s emotions in child abuse and neglect. Aggressive Behavior, 47(2), 161–172. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21935 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carpenter, L. L., Shattuck, T. T., Tyrka, A. R., Geracioti, T. D., & Price, L. H. (2011). Effect of childhood physical abuse on cortisol stress response. Psychopharmacology, 214(1), 367–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-2007-4 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheng, P., & Langevin, R. (2022). Unpacking the effects of child maltreatment subtypes on emotional competence in emerging adults. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 15(Suppl 1), S102–S111. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001322 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Condon, E. M., Dettmer, A., Baker, E., McFaul, C., & Stover, C. S. (2022). Early life adversity and males : Biology, behavior, and implications for fathers’ parenting. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 135, 104531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104531 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Danese, A., & Widom, C. S. (2020). Objective and subjective experiences of child maltreatment and their relationships with psychopathology. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(8), 811–818. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0880-3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daudelin-Peltier, C., Forget, H., Blais, C., Deschênes, A., & Fiset, D. (2017). The effect of acute social stress on the recognition of facial expression of emotions. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 1036. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-01053-3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davison, K. K., Charles, J. N., Khandpur, N., & Nelson, T. J. (2017). Fathers’ perceived reasons for their underrepresentation in child health research and strategies to increase their involvement. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 21(2), 267–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-016-2157-z CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deans, C. L. (2020). Maternal sensitivity, its relationship with child outcomes, and interventions that address it: A systematic literature review. Early Child Development and Care, 190(2), 252–275. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2018.1465415 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eguren, A., Cyr, C., Dubois-Comtois, K., & Muela, A. (2023). Effects of the attachment video-feedback intervention (AVI) on parents and children at risk of maltreatment during the COVID-19 pandemic. Child Abuse & Neglect, 139, 106121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106121 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberg, N. (2020). Findings, issues, and new directions for research on emotion socialization. Developmental Psychology, 56(3), 664–670. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000906 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elfenbein, H. A., & Ambady, N. (2002). On the universality and cultural specificity of emotion recognition: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128(2), 203–235. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.2.203 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
England-Mason, G., Kimber, M., Khoury, J., Atkinson, L., MacMillan, H., & Gonzalez, A. (2017). Difficulties with emotion regulation moderate the association between childhood history of maltreatment and cortisol reactivity to psychosocial challenge in postpartum women. Hormones and Behavior, 95, 44–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2017.07.007 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feldman, R. (1998). Coding interactive behavior manual. Unpublished Manual.Google Scholar
Franz, M. R., Kumar, S. A., Brock, R. L., Calvi, J. L., & DiLillo, D. (2022). Parenting behaviors of mothers with posttraumatic stress : The roles of cortisol reactivity and negative emotion. Journal of Family Psychology, 36(1), 130–139. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000865 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gonzalez, A. (2013). The impact of childhood maltreatment on biological systems: Implications for clinical interventions. Paediatrics & Child Health, 18(8), 415–418.Google ScholarPubMed
Gonzalez, A., Jenkins, J. M., Steiner, M., & Fleming, A. S. (2012). Maternal early life experiences and parenting: The mediating role of cortisol and executive function. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(7), 673–682.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greene, C. A., Haisley, L., Wallace, C., & Ford, J. D. (2020). Intergenerational effects of childhood maltreatment : A systematic review of the parenting practices of adult survivors of childhood abuse, neglect, and violence. Clinical Psychology Review, 80, 101891. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101891 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M., Quevedo, K. (2007). The neurobiology of stress and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58(1), 145–173. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085605 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hajal, N. J., & Paley, B. (2020). Parental emotion and emotion regulation: A critical target of study for research and intervention to promote child emotion socialization. Developmental Psychology, 56(3), 403–417. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000864 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartling, C., Fan, Y., Weigand, A., Trilla, I., Gärtner, M., Bajbouj, M., Dziobek, I., & Grimm, S. (2019). Interaction of HPA axis genetics and early life stress shapes emotion recognition in healthy adults. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 99, 28–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.08.030 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Publications.Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F. (2022). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (3rd ed.). Guilford Publications. https://www.guilford.com/books/Introduction-to-Mediation-Moderation-and-Conditional-Process-Analysis/Andrew-Hayes/9781462549030 Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F., & Cai, L. (2007). Using heteroskedasticity-consistent standard error estimators in OLS regression: An introduction and software implementation. Behavior Research Methods, 39(4), 709–722. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03192961 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Izard, C. E. (1994). Innate and universal facial expressions : Evidence from developmental and cross-cultural research. Psychological Bulletin, 115(2), 288–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.2.288 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Juul, S. H., Hendrix, C., Robinson, B., Stowe, Z. N., Newport, D. J., Brennan, P. A., & Johnson, K. C. (2016). Maternal early-life trauma and affective parenting style : The mediating role of HPA-axis function. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 19(1), 17–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-015-0528-x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keogh, T. M., Howard, S., Gallagher, S., & Ginty, A. T. (2023). Cluster analysis reveals distinct patterns of childhood adversity, behavioral disengagement, and depression that predict blunted heart rate reactivity to acute psychological stress. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 57(1), 61–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/abm/kaac019 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Langevin, R., Marshall, C., & Kingsland, E. (2021). Intergenerational cycles of maltreatment : A scoping review of psychosocial risk and protective factors. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 22(4), 672–688. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838019870917 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leerkes, E. M. (2010). Predictors of maternal sensitivity to infant distress. Parenting, Science and Practice, 10(3), 219–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295190903290840 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leerkes, E. M., & Augustine, M. E. (2019). Parenting and emotions. In Handbook of parenting (pp. 620–653). Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leite Ongilio, F., Gaspardo, C. M., & Linhares, M. B. M. (2022). Maternal history of adversity and subsequent mother-child interactions at early ages: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(5), 3412–3432. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221130355 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, Z., Sturge-Apple, M. L., & Davies, P. T. (2022). Family instability, parenting, and child externalizing problems: Moderation by maternal sympathetic stress reactivity. Development and Psychopathology, 35(4), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457942200058X CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LoBue, V., & Thrasher, C. (2015). The child affective facial expression (CAFE) set: Validity and reliability from untrained adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1532. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01532 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ludmer, J. A., Gonzalez, A., Kennedy, J., Masellis, M., Meinz, P., & Atkinson, L. (2018). Association between maternal childhood maltreatment and mother-infant attachment disorganization : Moderation by maternal oxytocin receptor gene and cortisol secretion. Hormones and Behavior, 102, 23–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2018.04.006 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Madigan, S., Cyr, C., Eirich, R., Fearon, R. M. P., Ly, A., Rash, C., Poole, J. C., & Alink, L. R. A. (2019). Testing the cycle of maltreatment hypothesis : Meta-analytic evidence of the intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment. Development and Psychopathology, 31(1), 23–51. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418001700 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malatesta, C. Z., Culver, C., Tesman, J. R., & Shepard, B. (1989). The development of emotion expression during the first two years of life. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 54(1-2), 1–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marques-Feixa, L., Palma-Gudiel, H., Romero, S., Moya-Higueras, J., Rapado-Castro, M., Castro-Quintas, Águeda, Zorrilla, Iñaki, José Muñoz, M. D., Ramírez, M., Mayoral, M. D., Mas, A., José Lobato, M. D., Blasco-Fontecilla, H., Fañanás, L., (2023). Childhood maltreatment disrupts HPA-axis activity under basal and stress conditions in a dose-response relationship in children and adolescents. Psychological Medicine, 53(3), 1060–1073. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329172100249X CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Memon, M. A., Cheah, J. H., Ramayah, T., Ting, H., Chuah, F., & Cham, T. H. (2019). Moderation analysis: Issues and guidelines. Journal of Applied Structural Equation Modeling, 3(1), 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mesman, J., & Emmen, R. A. G. (2013). Mary Ainsworth’s legacy : A systematic review of observational instruments measuring parental sensitivity. Attachment & Human Development, 15(5-6), 485–506. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2013.820900 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16(2), 361–388. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Motsan, S., Yirmiya, K., & Feldman, R. (2022). Chronic early trauma impairs emotion recognition and executive functions in youth; specifying biobehavioral precursors of risk and resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 34(4), 1339–1352. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579421000067 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nyström-Hansen, M., Andersen, M. S., Khoury, J. E., Davidsen, K., Gumley, A., Lyons-Ruth, K., MacBeth, A., & Harder, S. (2019). Hair cortisol in the perinatal period mediates associations between maternal adversity and disrupted maternal interaction in early infancy. Developmental Psychobiology, 61(4), 543–556. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21833 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ouellet-Morin, I., Robitaille, M.-P., Langevin, S., Cantave, C., Brendgen, M., & Lupien, S. J. (2019). Enduring effect of childhood maltreatment on cortisol and heart rate responses to stress : The moderating role of severity of experiences. Development and Psychopathology, 31(2), 497–508. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418000123 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paquette, D., Laporte, L., Bigras, M., & Zoccolillo, M. (2004). Validation of the french version of the CTQ and prevalence of the history of maltreatment. Santé Mentale Au Québec, 29(1), 201–220. https://doi.org/10.7202/008831ar CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearson, J., Collin-Vézina, D. (2018). Les conséquences neurobiologiques de la maltraitance : connaissances actuelles et pistes d’intervention: In Dans Milot, T., Collin Vezina, D., & Godbout, N. (Eds.), Le trauma complexe : Comprendre, évaluer et intervenir (pp. 91–116). Les Presses de l’Université du Québec.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reijman, S., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Hiraoka, R., Crouch, J. L., Milner, J. S., Alink, L. R., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2016). Baseline functioning and stress reactivity in maltreating parents and at-risk adults: Review and meta-analyses of autonomic nervous system studies. Child Maltreatment, 21(4), 327–342. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559516659937 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosopa, P. J., Brawley, A. M., Atkinson, T. P., & Robertson, S. A. (2019). On the conditional and unconditional type I error rates and power of tests in linear models with heteroscedastic errors. Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods, 17(2), 8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saini, S. M., Hoffmann, C. R., Pantelis, C., Everall, I. P., & Bousman, C. A. (2019). Systematic review and critical appraisal of child abuse measurement instruments. Psychiatry Research, 272, 106–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.068 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Savage, L.-É., Tarabulsy, G. M., Pearson, J., Collin-Vézina, D., & Gagné, L.-M. (2019). Maternal history of childhood maltreatment and later parenting behavior : A meta-analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 31(1), 9–21. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418001542 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schalinski, I., Elbert, T., Steudte-Schmiedgen, S., & Kirschbaum, C. (2015). The cortisol paradox of trauma-related disorders : Lower phasic responses but higher tonic levels of cortisol are associated with sexual abuse in childhood. PLoS ONE, 10(8), e0136921. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0136921 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schär, S., Mürner-Lavanchy, I., Schmidt, S. J., Koenig, J., & Kaess, M. (2022). Child maltreatment and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 66, 100987. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.100987 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
St-Laurent, D., Dubois-Comtois, K., Milot, T., & Cantinotti, M. (2019). Intergenerational continuity/discontinuity of child maltreatment among low-income mother-child dyads: The roles of childhood maltreatment characteristics, maternal psychological functioning, and family ecology. Development and Psychopathology, 31(1), 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457941800161X CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stellern, S. A., Gunnar, D. (2012). La psychobiologie développementale du stress: In Lemelin, J. P., Provost, M. A., Tarabulsy, G. M., Plamondon, A., & Dufresne, C. (Eds.), Développement social et émotionnel chez l'enfant et l'adolescent: Les bases du développement (pp. 85–109). Presses de l'Université du Québec.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stern, J. A., Kelsey, C. M., Krol, K. M., & Grossmann, T. (2023). Maternal recognition of positive emotion predicts sensitive parenting in infancy. Emotion, 23(5), 1506–1512. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001125 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stuart, A. C., Egmose, I., Smith-Nielsen, J., Reijman, S., Wendelboe, K. I., & Væver, M. S. (2023). Coding interactive behaviour instrument: Mother-infant interaction quality, construct validity, measurement invariance, and postnatal depression and anxiety. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 1-16(6), 1839–1854. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-023-02584-2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, M. W., Bennett, D. S., & Lewis, M. (2013). Individual differences in the cortisol responses of neglected and comparison children. Child Maltreatment, 18(1), 8–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559512449378 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suzuki, A., Poon, L., Papadopoulos, A. S., Kumari, V., & Cleare, A. J. (2014). Long term effects of childhood trauma on cortisol stress reactivity in adulthood and relationship to the occurrence of depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 50, 289–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.09.007 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swain, J. E., & Ho, S.-H. S. (2017). Neuroendocrine mechanisms for parental sensitivity : Overview, recent advances and future directions. Current Opinion in Psychology, 15, 105–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.02.027 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turgeon, J., Bérubé, A., Blais, C., Lemieux, A., & Fournier, A. (2020). Recognition of children’s emotional facial expressions among mothers reporting a history of childhood maltreatment. PLoS One, 15(12), e0243083. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243083 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van der Asdonk, S., Cyr, C., & Alink, L. (2021). Improving parent-child interactions in maltreating families with the attachment video-feedback intervention: Parental childhood trauma as a moderator of treatment effects. Attachment & Human Development, 23(6), 876–896. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2020.1799047 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Schuengel, C., Wang, Q., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2023). Improving parenting, child attachment, and externalizing behaviors: Meta-analysis of the first 25 randomized controlled trials on the effects of video-feedback intervention to promote positive parenting and sensitive discipline. Development and Psychopathology, 35(1), 241–256. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579421001462 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagner, H. L. (1993). On measuring performance in category judgment studies of nonverbal behavior. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 17(1), 3–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00987006 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagner, M. F., Milner, J. S., McCarthy, R. J., Crouch, J. L., McCanne, T. R., & Skowronski, J. J. (2015). Facial emotion recognition accuracy and child physical abuse : An experiment and a meta-analysis. Psychology of Violence, 5(2), 154–162. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036014 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, Q. (2021). A biopsychosocial perspective on maternal parenting in the first two years of infant life. Behavioural Brain Research, 411, 113375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113375 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, A. W., Rowland, D., Calder, A. J., Etcoff, N. L., Seth, A., & Perrett, D. I. (1997). Facial expression megamix: Tests of dimensional and category accounts of emotion recognition. Cognition, 63(3), 271–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0010-0277(97)00003-6 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed