Hostname: page-component-cb9f654ff-pvkqz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-08-06T07:58:33.222Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Trajectories of co-occurring psychopathology symptoms in autism from late childhood to adulthood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 July 2020

James B. McCauley ,
Rebecca Elias  and
Catherine Lord
James B. McCauley
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Rebecca Elias
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Catherine Lord*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: Catherine Lord, George Tarjan Distinguished Professor of Psychiatry, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles Jane & Terry Semel Institute for Neuroscience & Human Behavior, 760 Westwood Plaza 68-265, Los Angeles, CA 90024, USA; E-mail: clord@mednet.ucla.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Given high rates of co-occurring conditions in youth and adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), it is critical to examine the developmental trajectories of these symptoms of psychopathology. Using data from a cohort of participants (n = 194), most of whom were first assessed for ASD in very early childhood, we investigated the trajectories of co-occurring depressive, anxiety, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms from late childhood to adulthood. Additionally, childhood predictors and adult outcomes associated with these symptom trajectories were examined. Using group-based trajectory modeling, we found two distinct classes of individuals exhibiting each of these co-occurring symptom patterns: one class exhibited fairly low symptoms across time, and one class with elevated symptoms with varied fluctuation across time (ADHD symptoms starting high but decreasing, anxiety symptoms high and stable, and depressive symptoms fluctuating but peaking at clinically significant levels in young adulthood). All high trajectory classes were associated with age 9 adaptive skills; verbal IQ predicted higher anxiety and depressive symptom classes. After accounting for verbal IQ, all high symptom trajectory classes were negative predictors of objective adult outcomes. These findings call for wide-ranging considerations of the needs of individuals across ability levels, autism symptoms, and behavioral and emotional challenges.

Keywords

autismco-occurring symptomsdevelopmentlongitudinal dataoutcomestrajectories

Information

Type
Special Section Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 32 , Special Issue 4: Conceptualizing and Interrogating Autism Spectrum Disorder from a Developmental Psychopathology Framework , October 2020 , pp. 1287 - 1302
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Achenbach, T., & Rescorla, L. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms & profiles. Burlington: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T., & Rescorla, L. (2003). Manual for the ASEBA adult forms & profiles. Burlington: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.Google Scholar
Alvares, G. A., Bebbington, K., Cleary, D., Evans, K., Glasson, E. J., Maybery, M. T., … Whitehouse, A. J. (2020). The misnomer of ‘high functioning autism’: Intelligence is an imprecise predictor of functional abilities at diagnosis. Autism, 24, 221–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aman, M. G., Singh, N. N., Stewart, A. W., & Field, C. J. (1985). The aberrant behavior checklist: a behavior rating scale for the assessment of treatment effects. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 89, 485–491.Google ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). American Psychiatric Pub.Google Scholar
Anderson, D. K., Maye, M. P., & Lord, C. (2011). Changes in maladaptive behaviors from midchildhood to young adulthood in autism spectrum disorder. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 116, 381–397.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, K. A., Shattuck, P. T., Cooper, B. P., Roux, A. M., & Wagner, M. (2014). Prevalence and correlates of postsecondary residential status among young adults with an autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 18, 562–570.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Appleton, H., Roberts, J., & Simpson, K. (2019). How is anxiety identified and diagnosed in individuals with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability? A scoping review. Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 1–24.Google Scholar
Baio, J., Wiggins, L., Christensen, D. L., Maenner, M. J., Daniels, J., Warren, Z., … Dowling, N. F. (2018). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years—autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2014. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Surveillance Summaries (Washington, D.C.: 2002), 67, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss6706a1Google Scholar
Bal, V. H., Kim, S. H., Cheong, D., & Lord, C. (2015). Daily living skills in individuals with autism spectrum disorder from 2 to 21 years of age. Autism, 19, 774–784.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bal, V. H., Maye, M., Salzman, E., Huerta, M., Pepa, L., Risi, S., & Lord, C. (2019). The adapted ADOS: A new module set for the assessment of minimally verbal adolescents and adults. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 1–11.Google Scholar
Bauminger, N., & Kasari, C. (2000). Loneliness and friendship in high-functioning children with autism. Child Development, 71, 447–456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory-II. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Biederman, J., Petty, C. R., Clarke, A., Lomedico, A., & Faraone, S. V. (2011). Predictors of persistent ADHD: an 11-year follow-up study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45, 150–155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bitsika, V., & Sharpley, C. F. (2016). Mothers’ depressive state ‘distorts’ the ratings of depression they give for their sons with an autism spectrum disorder. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 63, 491–499.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, Y. C., Quan, J., & Wood, J. J. (2012). Effects of anxiety disorder severity on social functioning in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 24, 235–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charman, T., Jones, C. R., Pickles, A., Simonoff, E., Baird, G., & Happé, F. (2011). Defining the cognitive phenotype of autism. Brain Research, 1380, 10–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, T., Feehan, C., Tinline, C., & Vostanis, P. (1999). Autistic symptoms in children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 8, 50–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craske, M. G., & Stein, M. B. (2016). Anxiety. Lancet, 388, 3048–3059. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30381-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Croen, L. A., Zerbo, O., Qian, Y., Massolo, M. L., Rich, S., Sidney, S., & Kripke, C. (2015). The health status of adults on the autism spectrum. Autism, 19, 814–823.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curran, P. J., Georgeson, A. R., Bauer, D. J., & Hussong, A. M. (2020). Psychometric models for scoring multiple reporter assessments: Applications to integrative data analysis in prevention science and beyond. International Journal of Behavioral Development, https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025419896620CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curran, P. J., Mcginley, J. S., Bauer, D. J., Andrea, M., Burns, A., Chassin, L., & Sher, K. (2014). A moderated nonlinear factor model for the development of commensurate measures in integrative data analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 49, 214–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Bruin, E. I., Ferdinand, R. F., Meester, S., De Nijs, P. F. A., & Verheij, F. (2007). High rates of psychiatric co-morbidity in PDD-NOS. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 877–886. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0215-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Döpfner, M., Hautmann, C., Görtz-Dorten, A., Klasen, F., Ravens-Sieberer, U., & Study Group, B. E. L. L. A. (2015). Long-term course of ADHD symptoms from childhood to early adulthood in a community sample. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 24, 665–673.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elliott, C. D. (2007). Differential Ability Scales (2nd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment.Google Scholar
Esbensen, A. J., Rojahn, J., Aman, M. G., & Ruedrich, S. (2003). Reliability and validity of an assessment instrument for anxiety, depression, and mood among individuals with mental retardation. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33, 617–629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fok, M., & Bal, V. H. (2019). Differences in profiles of emotional behavioral problems across instruments in verbal versus minimally verbal children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 12, 1367–1375. doi:10.1002/aur.2126CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gadow, K. D., Devincent, C. J., Pomeroy, J., & Azizian, A. (2005). Comparison of DSM-IV symptoms in elementary school-age children with PDD versus clinic and community samples. Autism, 9, 392–415. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361305056079CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gadow, K. D., DeVincent, C. J., & Pomeroy, J. (2006). ADHD symptom subtypes in children with pervasive developmental disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 271–283.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gadow, K. D., Guttmann-Steinmetz, S., Rieffe, C., & DeVincent, C. J. (2012). Depression symptoms in boys with autism spectrum disorder and comparison samples. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 1353–1363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garber, J., Keiley, M. K., & Martin, N. C. (2002). Developmental trajectories of adolescents’ depressive symptoms: predictors of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 79–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, R., Ford, T., Simmons, H., Gatward, R., & Meltzer, H. (2000). Using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) to screen for child psychiatric disorders in a community sample. The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 177, 534–539. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.177.6.534CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon-Lipkin, E., Marvin, A. R., Law, J. K., & Lipkin, P. H. (2018). Anxiety and mood disorder in children with autism spectrum disorder and ADHD. Pediatrics, 141, e20171377.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gotham, K., Brunwasser, S. M., & Lord, C. (2015a). Depressive and anxiety symptom trajectories from school age through young adulthood in samples with autism spectrum disorder and developmental delay. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 54, 369–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gotham, K., Unruh, K., & Lord, C. (2015b). Depression and its measurement in verbal adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 19, 491–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gray, K., Keating, C., Taffe, J., Brereton, A., Einfeld, S., & Tonge, B. (2012). Trajectory of behavior and emotional problems in autism. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 117, 121–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenlee, J. L., Mosley, A. S., Shui, A. M., Veenstra-VanderWeele, J., & Gotham, K. O. (2016). Medical and behavioral correlates of depression history in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics, 137, S105–S114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hallett, V., Lecavalier, L., Sukhodolsky, D. G., Cipriano, N., Aman, M. G., McCracken, J. T., … Sikich, L. (2013). Exploring the manifestations of anxiety in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 2341–2352.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Havdahl, K. A., von Tetzchner, S., Huerta, M., Lord, C., & Bishop, S. L. (2016). Utility of the child behavior checklist as a screener for autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 9, 33–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoffmann, W., Weber, L., König, U., Becker, K., & Kamp-Becker, I. (2016). The role of the CBCL in the assessment of autism spectrum disorders: An evaluation of symptom profiles and screening characteristics. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 27, 44–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hollocks, M. J., Lerh, J. W., Magiati, I., Meiser-Stedman, R., & Brugha, T. S. (2019). Anxiety and depression in adults with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta analysis. Psychological Medicine, 49, 559–572.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howlin, P., Mawhood, L., & Rutter, M. (2000). Autism and developmental receptive language disorder—A follow-up comparison in early adult life. II: Social, behavioural, and psychiatric outcomes. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41, 561–578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, B. L., & Nagin, D. S. (2007). Advances in group-based trajectory modeling and an SAS procedure for estimating them. Sociological Methods & Research, 35, 542–571.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, B. L., & Nagin, D. S. (2013). A note on a Stata plugin for estimating group-based trajectory models. Sociological Methods & Research, 42, 608–613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, B. L., Nagin, D. S., & Roeder, K. (2001). A SAS procedure based on mixture models for estimating developmental trajectories. Sociological Methods & Research, 29, 374–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaat, A. J., Lecavalier, L., & Aman, M. G. (2014). Validity of the aberrant behavior checklist in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 1103–1116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kerns, C. M., & Kendall, P. C. (2012). The presentation and classification of anxiety in autism spectrum disorder. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 19, 323–347.Google Scholar
Kerns, C. M., Kendall, P. C., Zickgraf, H., Franklin, M. E., Miller, J., & Herrington, J. (2015). Not to be overshadowed or overlooked: Functional impairments associated with comorbid anxiety disorders in youth with ASD. Behavior Therapy, 46, 29–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kerns, C. M., Winder-Patel, B., Iosif, A. M., Nordahl, C. W., Heath, B., Solomon, M., & Amaral, D. G. (2020). Clinically significant anxiety in children with autism spectrum disorder and varied intellectual functioning. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 1–16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2019.1703712CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, J. A., Szatmari, P., Bryson, S. E., Streiner, D. L., & Wilson, F. J. (2000). The prevalence of anxiety and mood problems among children with autism and Asperger syndrome. Autism, 4, 117–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kraper, C. K., Kenworthy, L., Popal, H., Martin, A., & Wallace, G. L. (2017). The gap between adaptive behavior and intelligence in autism persists into young adulthood and is linked to psychiatric co-morbidities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47, 3007–3017.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kreiser, N. L., & White, S. W. (2015). ASD traits and co-occurring psychopathology: The moderating role of gender. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45, 3932–3938.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lai, M. C., Kassee, C., Besney, R., Bonato, S., Hull, L., Mandy, W., … Ameis, S. H. (2019). Prevalence of co-occurring mental health diagnoses in the autism population: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry, 6, 819–829.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lainhart, J. E. (1999). Psychiatric problems in individuals with autism, their parents and siblings. International Review of Psychiatry, 11, 278–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lecavalier, L., Gadow, K. D., Devincent, C. J., Houts, C. R., & Edwards, M. C. (2011). Validity of DSM-IV syndromes in preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 15, 527–543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lecavalier, L., McCracken, C. E., Aman, M. G., McDougle, C. J., McCracken, J. T., Tierney, E., … Swiezy, N. B. (2019). An exploration of concomitant psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 88, 57–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leitner, Y. (2014). The co-occurrence of autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children–what do we know? Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levy, S. E., Giarelli, E., Lee, L. C., Schieve, L. A., Kirby, R. S., Cunniff, C., … Rice, C. E. (2010). Autism spectrum disorder and co-occurring developmental, psychiatric, and medical conditions among children in multiple populations of the United States. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 31, 267–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leyfer, O. T., Folstein, S. E., Bacalman, S., Davis, N. O., Dinh, E., Morgan, J., … Lainhart, J. E. (2006). Comorbid psychiatric disorders in children with autism: interview development and rates of disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 849–861.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lopata, C., Thomeer, M. L., Volker, M. A., Toomey, J. A., Nida, R. E., Lee, G. K., … Rodgers, J. D. (2010). RCT of a manualized social treatment for high-functioning autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 1297–1310.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lord, C., McCauley, J. B., Pepa, L. A., Huerta, M., & Pickles, A. (2020). Work, living, and the pursuit of happiness: Vocational and psychosocial outcomes for young adults with autism. Autism, https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361320919246CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lord, C., Risi, S., DiLavore, P. S., Shulman, C., Thurm, A., & Pickles, A. (2006). Autism from 2 to 9 years of age. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 694–701. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.63.6.694CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P., Risi, S., Gotham, K., & Bishop, S. (2012). Autism diagnostic observation schedule–2nd edition (ADOS-2). Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Le Couteur, A. (1994). Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised: A revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24, 659–685. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02172145CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Magnuson, K. M., & Constantino, J. N. (2011). Characterization of depression in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics: JDBP, 32, 332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mansour, R., Dovi, A. T., Lane, D. M., Loveland, K. A., & Pearson, D. A. (2017). ADHD severity as it relates to comorbid psychiatric symptomatology in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Research in Developmental Disabilities, 60, 52–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matson, J. L., & Goldin, R. L. (2013). Comorbidity and autism: Trends, topics and future directions. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7, 1228–1233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matthews, N. L., Smith, C. J., Pollard, E., Ober-Reynolds, S., Kirwan, J., & Malligo, A. (2015). Adaptive functioning in autism spectrum disorder during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45, 2349–2360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L., Murray, M. J., Ahuja, M., & Smith, L. A. (2011). Anxiety, depression, and irritability in children with autism relative to other neuropsychiatric disorders and typical development. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 474–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazefsky, C. A., Anderson, R., Conner, C. M., & Minshew, N. (2011). Child Behavior Checklist scores for school-aged children with autism: Preliminary evidence of patterns suggesting the need for referral. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 33, 31–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazza, M. G., Rossetti, A., Crespi, G., & Clerici, M. (2019). Prevalence of co-occurring psychiatric disorders in adults and adolescents with intellectual disability: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities.Google ScholarPubMed
McCauley, J. B, Pickles, A.P., Huerta, M. H., & Lord, C. (in press). Defining positive outcomes in more and less cognitively able autistic adults. Autism Research.Google Scholar
Medeiros, K., Mazurek, M. O., & Kanne, S. (2017). Investigating the factor structure of the Child Behavior Checklist in a large sample of children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 40, 24–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meehl, P. E. (1990). Why summaries of research on psychological theories are often uninterpretable. Psychological Reports, 66, 195–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mullen, E. M. (1995). Mullen scales of early learning. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.Google Scholar
Nagin, D. S. (2005). Group-based modeling of development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicpon, M. F., Doobay, A. F., & Assouline, S. G. (2010). Parent, teacher, and self perceptions of psychosocial functioning in intellectually gifted children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 1028–1038.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ollendick, T. H., & White, S. W. (2012). The presentation and classification of anxiety in autism spectrum disorder: Where to from here? Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 19, 352–355. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpsp.12009Google Scholar
Orsmond, G. I., Shattuck, P. T., Cooper, B. P., Sterzing, P. R., & Anderson, K. A. (2013). Social participation among young adults with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 2710–2719.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ozsivadjian, A., Knott, F., & Magiati, I. (2012). Parent and child perspectives on the nature of anxiety in children and young people with autism spectrum disorders: a focus group study. Autism, 16, 107–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pandolfi, V., Magyar, C. I., & Dill, C. A. (2012). An initial psychometric evaluation of the CBCL 6–18 in a sample of youth with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6, 96–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pandolfi, V., Magyar, C. I., & Norris, M. (2014). Validity study of the CBCL 6–18 for the assessment of emotional problems in youth with ASD. Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 7, 306–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Picci, G., & Scherf, K. S. (2015). A two-hit model of autism: Adolescence as the second hit. Clinical Psychological Science, 3, 349–371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pickles, A., McCauley, J. B., Pepa, L. A., Huerta, M., & Lord, C. (2020). The adult outcome of children referred for autism: Typology and prediction from childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. doi:10.1111/jcpp.13180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rapee, R. M., Schniering, C. A., & Hudson, J. L. (2009). Anxiety disorders during childhood and adolescence: Origins and treatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 5, 311–341. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.032408.153628CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Renno, P., & Wood, J. J. (2013). Discriminant and convergent validity of the anxiety construct in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 2135–2146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reynolds, C. R., Richmond, B. O., & Lowe, P. A. (2003). The adult manifest anxiety scale adult version (AMAS-A). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
Rodriguez-Seijas, C., Gadow, K. D., Rosen, T. E., Kim, H., Lerner, M. D., & Eaton, N. R. (2019). A transdiagnostic model of psychiatric symptom co-occurrence and autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 13, 579–590.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rommelse, N. N. J., Franke, B., Geurts, H. M., Hartman, C. A., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2010). Shared heritability of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 19, 281–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-010-0092-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosen, T. E., Mazefsky, C. A., Vasa, R. A., & Lerner, M. D. (2018). Co-occurring psychiatric conditions in autism spectrum disorder. International Review of Psychiatry, 30, 40–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rotheram-Fuller, E., Kasari, C., Chamberlain, B., & Locke, J. (2010). Social involvement of children with autism spectrum disorders in elementary school classrooms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 51, 1227–1234. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02289.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roux, A., Shattuck, P., Rast, J., & Anderson, K. (2017). National autism indicators report: Developmental disability services and outcomes in adulthood. Philadelphia, PA: AJ Drexel Autism Institute, Drexel University.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., LeCouteur, A., Lord, C., Macdonald, H., Rios, P., & Folstein, S. (1988). Diagnosis and subclassification of autism: Concepts and instrument development. In E, Schopler, & G, Mesibov (Eds.)Diagnosis and subclassification of autism: Concepts and instrument development (pp. 239–259). New York: Plenum. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0792-9_16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salazar, F., Baird, G., Chandler, S., Tseng, E., O'sullivan, T., Howlin, P., … Simonoff, E. (2015). Co-occurring psychiatric disorders in preschool and elementary school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45, 2283–2294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sikora, D. M., Vora, P., Coury, D. L., & Rosenberg, D. (2012). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, adaptive functioning, and quality of life in children with autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics, 130, S91–S97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simonoff, E., Pickles, A., Charman, T., Chandler, S., Loucas, T., & Baird, G. (2008). Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 921–929.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, L. E., Maenner, M. J., & Seltzer, M. M. (2012). Developmental trajectories in adolescents and adults with autism: The case of daily living skills. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51, 622–631.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sparrow, S. S., Cicchetti, D. V., & Balla, D. A. (2005). Vineland adaptive behavior scales (2nd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service Inc.Google Scholar
Spencer, T. J., Biederman, J., & Mick, E. (2007). Attention-deficit / hyperactivity disorder: Diagnosis, lifespan, comorbidities, and neurobiology. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 32, 631–642.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinberg, L. (2008). A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking. Developmental Review, 28, 78–106. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stewart, M. E., Barnard, L., Pearson, J., Hasan, R., & O'Brien, G. (2006). Presentation of depression in autism and Asperger syndrome: A review. Autism, 10, 103–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Storch, E. A., Wood, J. J., Ehrenreich-May, J., Jones, A. M., Park, J. M., Lewin, A. B., & Murphy, T. K. (2012). Convergent and discriminant validity and reliability of the pediatric anxiety rating scale in youth with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 2374–2382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strang, J. F., Kenworthy, L., Daniolos, P., Case, L., Wills, M. C., Martin, A., & Wallace, G. L. (2012). Depression and anxiety symptoms in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders without intellectual disability. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6, 406–412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stringer, D., Kent, R., Briskman, J., Lukito, S., Charman, T., Baird, G., … Simonoff, E. (2020). Trajectories of emotional and behavioral problems from childhood to early adult life. Autism, 24, 1011–1024.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taurines, R., Schwenck, C., Westerwald, E., Sachse, M., Siniatchkin, M., & Freitag, C. (2012). ADHD and autism: Differential diagnosis or overlapping traits? A selective review. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 4, 115–139.Google ScholarPubMed
Taylor, J. L., & Seltzer, M. M. (2011). Employment and post-secondary educational activities for young adults with autism spectrum disorders during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41, 566–574.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thapar, A., Collishaw, S., Pine, D. S., & Thapar, A. K. (2012). Depression in adolescence. Lancet, 379, 1056–1067. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60871-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vannucchi, G., Masi, G., Toni, C., Dell'Osso, L., Marazziti, D., & Perugi, G. (2014). Clinical features, developmental course, and psychiatric comorbidity of adult autism spectrum disorders. CNS Spectrums, 19, 157–164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Oort, F. V. A., Greaves Lord, K., Verhulst, F. C., Ormel, J., & Huizink, A. C. (2009). The developmental course of anxiety symptoms during adolescence: the TRAILS study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1209–1217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Steensel, F. J. A., Bögels, S. M., & Perrin, S. (2011). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents with autistic spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 302–317.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wechsler, D. (1999). Manual for the Wechsler abbreviated scale of intelligence. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Wei, X., Wagner, M., Hudson, L., Yu, J. W., & Shattuck, P. (2015). Transition to adulthood: Employment, education, and disengagement in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Emerging Adulthood, 3, 37–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, S. W., Lerner, M. D., McLeod, B. D., Wood, J. J., Ginsburg, G. S., Kerns, C., … Compton, S. (2015). Anxiety in youth with and without autism spectrum disorder: Examination of factorial equivalence. Behavior Therapy, 46, 40–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, S. W., Oswald, D., Ollendick, T., & Scahill, L. (2009). Anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 216–229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, J. J., & Gadow, K. D. (2010). Exploring the nature and function of anxiety in youth with autism spectrum disorders. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 17, 281–292.Google Scholar
Woodman, A. C., Mailick, M. R., & Greenberg, J. S. (2016). Trajectories of internalizing and externalizing symptoms among adults with autism spectrum disorders. Development and Psychopathology, 28, 565–581.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yerys, B. E., Bertollo, J. R., Pandey, J., Guy, L., & Schultz, R. T. (2019). Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms are associated with lower adaptive behavior skills in children with autism. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 58, 525–533.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zablotsky, B., Bramlett, M. D., & Blumberg, S. J. (2020). The co-occurrence of autism spectrum disorder in children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 24, 94–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zwaigenbaum, L., Bauman, M. L., Choueiri, R., Kasari, C., Carter, A., Granpeesheh, D., … Pierce, K. (2015). Early intervention for children with autism spectrum disorder under 3 years of age: recommendations for practice and research. Pediatrics, 136, S60–S81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed