Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-skm99 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-30T03:09:17.853Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

CIVIL RELIGIONS IN DERBY, 1930–2000*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 March 2016

ALISTER CHAPMAN
ALISTER CHAPMAN*
Affiliation:
Westmont College, CA
*
Department of History, Westmont College, 955 La Paz Road, Santa Barbara, CA 93108chapman@westmont.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article explores the impact of immigration on the social history of Derby, England, after the Second World War. In particular, it studies the changes in the city's religious culture associated with the decline of Christianity as the city's civil religion and the increased religious pluralism due to immigration. This local study challenges assumptions about the nature and timing of secularization, and the characterization of religion in late twentieth-century Britain as militant. As new communities from South Asia and the West Indies settled in Derby, their politicization resulted in a growing emphasis on their religious identity that countered interethnic conflict and fostered civil society. The Christian churches are an important part of this story as they found new ways of remaining relevant, sometimes in concert with members of other faith traditions. Between 1930 and 2000, Derby experienced a shift from a civil religion to an array of religions that were civil to each other and concerned for the good of society. Religion continued to play a constructive role in English society at the end of the twentieth century.

Type
Articles
Information
The Historical Journal , Volume 59 , Issue 3 , September 2016 , pp. 817 - 843
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

The author wishes to thank Chandra Mallampalli, Michelle Tusan, and this journal's anonymous reviewers for their helpful criticism of earlier versions of this article; Rachel Hatcher and Kyndal Vogt for their research assistance; the offices of the president and provost at Westmont College for financial support of this project; the staff at the Derbyshire Record Office, Matlock, and the Derby Local Studies Library; and, above all, the people of Derby who shared their stories.

References

1 Interviews with Judith and Eric Raven, 18 June 2014, 25 July 2014.

2 Interview with Soshain Bali, 17 June 2014.

3 Interviews with Edna Williamson, 10 June 2014; Gloria Newell, 17 June 2014; and Vida Johnson, 17 June 2014; H. S. Bains, Asians in Derby (Derby, 1982?), p. 4.

4 Interview with Judith and Eric Raven, 25 July 2014; email from Chris Cremin, 28 July 2014; St Giles Register of Services, D3611/7/3, Derbyshire Record Office, Matlock, Derbyshire (DRO).

5 The best introduction to secularization theory is S. Bruce, Secularization: in defence of an unfashionable theory (Oxford, 2011). For a discussion of recent developments in the historiography relating to secularization, see Erdozain, D., ‘“Cause is not quite what it used to be”: the return of secularization’, English Historical Review, 525 (2012), pp. 377–400 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Morris, J., ‘The strange death of Christian Britain: another look at the secularization debate’, Historical Journal, 46 (2003), pp. 963–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 For Davie, see especially Religion in Britain since 1945: believing without belonging (Oxford, 1994). For Brown, the two most important books are C. G. Brown, The death of Christian Britain: understanding secularisation, 1800–2000 (London, 2001), and idem, Religion and the demographic revolution: women and secularisation in Canada, Ireland, UK and USA since the 1960s (Woodbridge, 2012). For an interdisciplinary response to Brown, see J. Garnett, M. Grimley, A. Harris, W. Whyte, and S. Williams, eds., Redefining Christian Britain: post-1945 perspectives (London, 2007).

7 P. Weller, Time for a change: reconfiguring religion, state and society (London, 2005), p. 111; L. Woodhead, ‘Introduction’, in L. Woodhead and R. Catto, eds., Religion and change in modern Britain (London, 2012), pp. 24–6.

8 G. Davie, Religion in Britain: a persistent paradox (2nd edn, Chichester, 2015).

9 See especially J. Cox, The English churches in a secular society: Lambeth, 1870–1930 (Oxford, 1982); S. J. D. Green, Religion in the age of decline: organisation and experience in industrial Yorkshire, 1870–1920 (Cambridge, 1996); J. N. Morris, Religion and urban change: Croydon, 1840–1914 (London, 1992); M. Smith, Religion in industrial society: Oldham and Saddleworth, 1740–1865 (Oxford, 1994); S. C. Williams, Religious belief and popular culture in Southwark, c. 1880–1939 (Oxford, 1999).

10 I. Jones, The local church and generational change in Birmingham, 1945–2000 (Woodbridge, 2012). The churches Jones studied were predominantly historic and therefore white. When he was drawing up his list of churches to study, he did approach the city's large, charismatic churches – which would almost certainly have had a much greater number of non-white members – but none of them were willing to take part; Jones, The local church, p. 14. For a local study of popular religion during the Second World War, see S. Parker, Faith on the home front: aspects of church life and popular religion in Birmingham, 1939–1945 (Bern, 2005).

11 See for example P. Hopkins and R. Gale, eds., Muslims in Britain: race, place and identities (Edinburgh, 2009); Gale, R. and Naylor, S., ‘Religion, planning and the city: the spatial politics of ethnic minority expression in British cities and towns’, Ethnicities, 2 (2002), pp. 387–409 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; J. Chatterji and D. Washbrook, eds., The Routledge handbook of the South Asian diaspora (London, 2013); Weller, P., ‘Addressing religious discrimination and Islamophobia: Muslims and liberal democracies, the case of the United Kingdom’, Journal of Islamic Studies, 17 (2006), pp. 295–325 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; D. Goodhart, The British dream: successes and failures of post-war immigration (London, 2013); J. White, London in the twentieth century (London, 1991), ch. 4; T. Abbas, ed., Muslim Britain: communities under pressure (London, 2005); H. Ansari, The ‘infidel’ within: Muslims in Britain since 1800 (London, 2004); R. Weight and A. Beach, eds., The right to belong: citizenship and national identity in Britain, 1930–1960 (London, 1983); D. Feldman, ‘Why the English like turbans: multicultural politics in British history’, in D. Feldman and J. Lawrence, eds., Structures and transformations in modern British history (Cambridge, 2011), pp. 281–302; and Woodhead and Catto, eds., Religion and change, passim. The dominance of non-historians in the field is long-standing; see C. Holmes, A tolerant country? Immigrants, refugees and minorities in Britain (London, 1991), p. 1.

12 M. Grimley, ‘The Church of England, race and multi-culturalism, 1962–2012’, in J. Garnett and A. Harris, eds., Rescripting religion in the city: migration and religious identity in the modern metropolis (Farnham, 2013), pp. 207–21.

13 C. Baker, ‘The contagion of the sacred and the right to the city: modalities of belonging, becoming and participating amongst diasporic religious communities and the growth of the post-secular city’, in Garnett and Harris, eds., Rescripting religion, pp. 89–101.

14 See especially Davie, Religion in Britain since 1945: believing without belonging, and Williams, Religious belief and popular culture. On distinctions between common religion, conventional religion, and other types, see G. Ahern and G. Davie, Inner city God: the nature of belief in the inner city (London, 1987).

15 See for example Davie, Religion in Britain since 1945: believing without belonging, pp. 199–200; Brown, Religion and the demographic revolution.

16 J. Hinton, Nine wartime lives: Mass-Observation and the making of the modern self (New York, NY, 2010), pp. 204–5.

17 G. Ganiel and P. Jones, ‘Religion, politics and law’, in Woodhead and Catto, eds., Religion and change, p. 300.

18 D. Martin with R. Catto, ‘The religious and the secular’, in Woodhead and Catto, eds., Religion and change, p. 377.

19 C. G. Brown, Religion and society in twentieth-century Britain (Harlow, 2006), pp. 297–314.

20 Davie has commented on the distorted picture of religion given in the media; Davie, Religion in Britain: a persistent paradox, p. 64.

21 The exception is Stevens, R., ‘“Rapid demise or slow death?” The Independent Labour Party in Derby, 1932–1945’, Midland History, 22 (1997), pp. 113–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22 One challenge has been the extent to which the interviewees’ memories have been coloured by their experiences since the events they describe. This is a particular problem with representatives of migrant communities that have become increasingly politicized over the past sixty years. Interviews therefore may tell us as much about Britain in 2014 as in 1964. Historians have recognized that this process is in itself useful (for a good introduction to these debates, see the discussion in Portelli, Alessandro, ‘The peculiarities of oral history’, History Workshop Journal, 12 (1981), pp. 96–107 CrossRefGoogle Scholar).

23 Interview with Judith Raven, 24 June 2015.

24 ‘Bishop on sex problems’, Derby Evening Telegraph (DET; the paper was produced as the Derby Daily Telegraph until Mar. 1932), 26 Jan. 1937, p. 5.

25 D. R. Jones, ‘Christianity, not flogging as crime cure’, DET, 28 Mar. 1950, p. 11.

26 ‘Derby attack on drink’, DET, 22 Nov. 1937, p. 5.

27 E.g. R. M. Thompson, ‘I suspect men with swearing habit’, DET, 15 Apr. 1950, p. 3, and idem, ‘We need a fiery crusade against drink’, DET, 6 Aug. 1955, p. 5.

28 ‘Defeatism “naked and unashamed”’, DET, 8 May 1947, p. 4.

29 ‘Spondon councillor's protest at Sunday cemetery inspection’, DET, 8 July 1937, p. 7.

30 ‘The mayor of Derby and age’, DET, 16 Feb. 1937, p. 5; ‘The mayor's advice on Bible reading’, DET, 8 July 1937, p. 4.

31 ‘Church being killed by carping criticism’, DET, 11 Nov. 1937, p. 5.

32 ‘World neglect of church’, DET, 21 June 1937, p. 5.

33 ‘Forces of spiritual strength’, DET, 10 May 1937, p. 5.

34 ‘Good Friday services’, DET, 19 Apr. 1930, p. 5; ‘Easter celebrations in Derby and district’, Derby Daily Telegraph, 21 Apr. 1930, p. 9; ‘A Derby man's diary’, DET, 10 Apr. 1939, p. 4.

35 See e.g. C. H. Hodgson, ‘An Easter message’, DET, 11 Apr. 1936, p. 4; ‘Civilisation's futility’, DET, 13 Apr. 1936, p. 8.

36 ‘A merry Xmas’, Derby Daily Telegraph, 24 Dec. 1930, p. 4.

37 Letter from W. H. Salisbury, Derby Daily Telegraph, 24 Dec. 1931, p. 4.

38 A. E. J. Rawlinson, ‘Bishop's Christmas message to diocese’, DET, 23 Dec. 1939, p. 5.

39 ‘A Christmas poem’, DET, 24 Dec. 1947, p. 3.

40 ‘Christmas at Derby churches’, DET, 27 Dec. 1937, p. 6; ‘Need for readjustment in church–state relations’, DET, 13 Apr. 1950, p. 5.

41 ‘Objections to Sunday ice cream’, DET, 29 Mar. 1950, p. 8.

42 ‘Festival bells at Derby’, DET, 7 May 1951, p. 5.

43 ‘A Derby man's diary’, DET, 28 Mar. 1932, p. 4.

44 DET, 20 Mar. 1948, p. 3.

45 ‘Easter message holds only hope for this tired world’, DET, 8 Apr. 1950, p. 6.

46 E.g. ‘All ready for Easter rush’, DET, 9 Apr. 1952, p. 6; ‘Rain or shine, many to travel at Easter’, DET, 15 Apr. 1954, p. 6.

47 E.g. ‘Christmas boom is biggest-ever in Derby’, DET, 23 Dec. 1955, p. 1; ‘The royal family's Christmas’, DET, 27 Dec. 1955, p. 1; ‘Royal party go to Sandringham’, DET, 23 Dec. 1963, p. 1; ‘Christmas Eve shoppers shiver’, DET, 24 Dec. 1963, p. 1.

48 ‘Good Friday football: protest by vicar’, DET, 9 Apr. 1952, p. 1.

49 ‘Council will not object to the revival of Good Friday game’, DET, 14 Apr. 1954, p. 14.

50 ‘Pretty girls, bonnets, eggs – and bears’, DET, 4 Apr. 1972, p. 10.

51 This parallels the argument made in S. J. D. Green, The passing of Protestant England: secularisation and social change, c. 1920–1960 (Cambridge, 2011).

52 Chapman, Alister, ‘The international context of secularization in England: the end of empire, immigration, and the decline of Christian national identity, 1945–1970’, Journal of British Studies, 53 (2015), pp. 163–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at pp. 166–74.

53 Brown, The death of Christian Britain, passim.

54 Lord Elton, Commonwealth Youth Sunday, 1937–1962: a history (n.p., 1962), p. 3.

55 ‘Mayor takes salute from youth parade’, DET, 22 May 1950, p. 2.

56 ‘Rain spoils youth Sunday in Derby’, DET, 19 May 1958, p. 4.

57 ‘1,000 parade for Youth Sunday’, DET, 5 June 1962, p. 8.

58 ‘750 in youth parade at Derby’, DET, 11 May 1964, p. 1.

59 ‘The reasons for the discontinuance of the observance’, Commonwealth Youth Sunday: report for 1964, Royal Commonwealth Society Library Collections, Cambridge University Library, R11/43.

60 Although one must remember the element of tacit coercion that would have been involved with getting these youth to participate: if they were in the sea cadets, they would have had little choice about attending the service. On coercion and religion, see Bruce, Secularization, p. 55.

61 ‘Road safety depends on law – and love, bishop’, DET, 30 July 1966, p. 5; ‘More join in Good Friday procession’, DET, 10 Apr. 1971, p. 13.

62 ‘Alien did not report move to Derby’, DET, 24 Mar. 1950, p. 4.

63 ‘They will have no traditional Christmas dinners’, DET, 23 Dec. 1952, p. 3.

64 ‘Poles banned from Derby ballroom’, DET, 8 Apr. 1950, p. 1.

65 S. Dasgupta, Salaam Stanley Matthews (London, 2006), p. 20.

66 Interview with Mohammed Riasat, 18 June 2014; interview with Raj Bali, 12 June 2014; interview with Edna Williamson; interview with Hardial Singh Dhillon, 14 June 2014; interview with Vida Johnson, 17 June 2014; interview with Gloria Newell, 17 June 2014. For a brief introduction to the push and pull factors relating to work, see Holmes, A tolerant country?, pp. 49–52.

67 Interview with Edna Williamson.

68 Interview with Vida Johnson.

69 Interview with Soshain Bali.

70 Interview with Gloria Newell.

71 Dasgupta, Salaam Stanley Matthews, pp. 31–43, 56, 81–96.

72 Interview with Mohammed Riasat.

73 Interview with Hardial Singh Dhillon.

74 Interview with Soshain Bali.

75 Interview with Raj Bali, 26 June 2015; see also J. Law, ‘The religious beliefs and practices of Hindus in Derby’, Community Religious Project Research Papers (Leeds, 1991), p. 11.

76 Interview with Mohammed Riasat.

77 Interview with Soshain Bali.

78 Interviews with Edna Williamson, Gloria Newell, and Vida Johnson.

79 Interview with Vida Johnson.

80 S. Greasley, Pear Tree Baptist Church, Derby, 1870–2000 (Derby, 2000), pp. 161–2.

81 On parent concerns, see ‘Children of coloured immigrants’, Oct. 1964, p. 1, Derby Borough Education Minutes, D4989/3/10, DRO.

82 ‘Immigrant children’, Derby Borough Education Minutes, Feb. 1966, D4989/3/10, DRO.

83 Ibid., p. 1.

84 Ibid., p. 3.

85 8 Feb. 1968, 17 July 1968, 28 Nov. 1968, Hardwick Secondary Modern Girls School Log Book, 1962–72, D6139/1/3, DRO.

86 ‘Notes on assembly in school’, 15 Jan. 1976, Minutes and Papers from Meetings, Homelands School, D5512/3/3/3, DRO. On the importance of the ecumenical movement and the Second Vatican Council for thinking of this sort, see J. Doney, ‘The overlooked ecumenical background to the development of English religious education’, in S. G. Parker, R. Freathy, and L. J. Francis, eds., History, remembrance and religious education (Oxford, 2015), pp. 139–66.

87 S. M. Wabe, ‘The place of assembly in the multi-racial school’, Minutes and Papers from Meetings, Homelands School, D5512/3/3/3, DRO.

88 Goodhart, The British dream, pp. 170–1. S. Parker and R. Freathy have shown that even the Birmingham Agreed syllabus of religious instruction (1975), which at the time caused widespread fears about the watering down of Christianity within schools, continued to emphasize the pre-eminence of Christianity for the curriculum; see Parker, S. G. and Freathy, R. J. K., ‘Ethnic diversity, Christian hegemony and the emergence of multi-faith religious education in the 1970s’, History of Education, 41 (2012), pp. 381–404 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

89 See Greasley, Pear Tree Baptist Church, pp. 182–3.

90 See for example ‘Heard in Heanor’, Ilkeston Pioneer, 10 Mar. 1967. On the churches’ desire to re-engage society during this period, see Brewitt-Taylor, S., ‘The invention of a “secular society”? Christianity and the sudden emergence of secularization discourses in the British media, 1961–1964’, Twentieth Century British History, 24 (2013), pp. 327–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

91 Minutes, 21 Jan. 1966, Minutes of the Derby and South Derbyshire Committee for Social Welfare Association, 1963–70, D4956/33/4, DRO.

92 Minutes, 29 Nov. 1973, Minutes of the Derby Diocesan Missionary and Ecumenical Council, D7140/1/5–6, DRO.

93 Minutes, 17 Sept. 1975, Minutes of the Derby Diocesan Missionary and Ecumenical Council, D7140/1/3–4, DRO. In light of the evidence provided here, Clifford Longley's assertion in the Times in 1974 that the presence of other religions had ‘scarcely had any impact on the life of the Christian churches’ is questionable. Quoted in Parker and Freathy, ‘Ethnic diversity’, p. 388.

94 Minutes, 22 Mar. 1966, St Thomas Parochial Church Council Minutes, D5447/2, DRO.

95 Minutes, 7 Oct. 1968, Pear Tree Road Baptist Church Deacons Meeting Minutes, D2660 J/B 77/10, DRO.

96 Minutes, 20 Mar. 1973 and 16 Mar. 1971, St Augustine's Derby Parochial Church Council Minute Book, 1947–74, D3307/12/3, DRO.

97 Minutes, 25 Nov. 1955, Leaders Meeting, Dairy House Road Methodist Church, D4131/3/3, DRO; Minutes, 24 Mar. 1956, Leaders Meeting, Dairy House Road Methodist Church, D4131/3/4, DRO.

98 Minutes, 21 Sept. 1960, Leaders Meeting, Dairy House Road Methodist Church, D4131/3/4, DRO.

99 Minutes, 6 Sept. 1964, Leaders Meeting, Dairy House Road Methodist Church, D4131/3/5, DRO.

100 Minutes, 22 July 1972, Leaders Meeting, Dairy House Road Methodist Church, D4131/3/5, DRO.

101 Minutes, 24 Mar. 1969, Pear Tree Road Baptist Church Deacons Meeting Minutes, D2660 J/B 77/10, DRO.

102 Interview with Helen and Tony Lyon, 19 June 2014.

103 Interview with Hardial Singh Dhillon.

104 Interview with Mohammed Riasat.

105 Letter from A. S. Khakh, DET, 23 Mar. 1971, p. 18.

106 Letter from J. Rajpar, DET, 9 Apr. 1971, p. 9; letter from M. Modi, DET, 9 Apr. 1971, p. 9.

107 See e.g. letter from ‘White and proud of it’, DET, 6 Apr. 1971, p. 6.

108 Goodhart, The British dream, pp. 115–62.

109 Interview with Gloria Newell.

110 Interview with Raj Bali, 12 June 2014.

111 Interview with Andrew Battie, 13 June 2014.

112 Goodhart, The British dream, p. 138.

113 Interview with Hardial Singh Dhillon; interview with Rupinder Dhillon, 14 June 2014.

114 On the importance of religion for cultural transition and defence, see Bruce, Secularization, pp. 49–52. See also Brown, Religion and society, p. 313.

115 Interview with Raj Bali, 12 June 2014.

116 Fareed Hussian, quoted in A. Comber, ‘Pray for peace’, DET, 11 Dec. 1992, p. 4.

117 Ibid., p. 4.

118 ‘Candlelit vigil for peace’, DET, 14 Dec. 1992, p. 3.

119 Minutes, 18 Sept. 1980, Derby Deanery Synod, D2104A/PI45/3, DRO.

120 Minutes, 7 May 1981, Derby Deanery Synod, D2104A/PI45/3, DRO.

121 Leaders Meeting Minutes, Dairy House Road Methodist Church, D4131/3/3–5, DRO; Church Meeting Minutes, Congregational Church, Normanton Road, D4931/5/7–9, DRO.

122 Interview with Daljit Singh Ahluwahlia, 9 June 2014.

123 Minutes, 10 Nov. 1978, Derby Deanery Synod, D2104A/PI45/3, DRO.

124 E.g. Minutes, 1 Feb. 1977, Derby Diocesan Missionary and Ecumenical Council, D7140/1/5–6, DRO.

125 Minutes, 15 Oct. 1974, Derby Diocesan Missionary and Ecumenical Council Minutes, BMU/HC/D102, Church of England Record Centre, South Bermondsey, London (CERC).

126 ‘Report on inter-faith worship’, 24 Sept. 1981, Derby Diocesan Missionary and Ecumenical Council Minutes, BMU/HC/D102, CERC.

127 See e.g. Minutes, 17 Sept. 1981, Derby Deanery Synod, D2104A/PI45/3, DRO; Minutes, 5 Mar. 1979, 22 Apr. 1980, 24 Sept. 1981, 6 Dec. 1982, Derby Diocesan Missionary and Ecumenical Council Minutes, BMU/HC/D102, CERC.

128 Minutes, 3 Feb. 1981, Derby Deanery Synod, D2104A/PI45/3, DRO.

129 Minutes, 24 Sept. 1981, Derby Diocesan Missionary and Ecumenical Council Minutes, BMU/HC/D102, CERC.

130 See the church's website: stgiles-derby.org.uk.

131 Interview with Edna Williamson.

132 Business Meeting Minutes, 24 Jan. 1987, Minute Book 3, Woodlands Chapel, held at Woodlands Chapel. I am grateful to Tim Gunn for allowing me to see these records.

133 Interview with Angela Bunting, 12 June 2014.

134 Interview with Father John Trenchard, 12 June 2014.

135 Greasley, Pear Tree Baptist Church, pp. 161ff.

136 Interview with Geoff Pickup, 17 June 2014.

137 Email from Geoff Pickup, 5 Sept. 2014.

138 Brown, Religion and society, pp. 297–314. Even one of the city's most conservative churches, the Meeting Room on Curzon Street, has almost no reach beyond its own, few members.

139 Interview with Geoff Pickup.

140 Report on inter-faith worship prepared for the Derby Diocesan Missionary and Ecumenical Council, 24 Sept. 1981, BMU/HC/D102, CERC.

141 Minutes, 30 Jan. 1969, Derby Diocesan Missionary and Ecumenical Council, D7140/1/3–4, DRO.

142 Interview with Roger Chapman, 24 July 2014. This fits a national pattern in which cathedral attendance was increasing rapidly; see M. Guest, E. Olson, and J. Wolffe, ‘Christianity: loss of monopoly’, in Woodhead and Catto, eds., Religion and change, p. 67.

143 Nicholas Henshall, quoted in interview with Roger Chapman.

144 Interview with Jonathan Powers, 14 June 2014.

145 Grimley, ‘The Church of England’, p. 208.

146 Interview with Tony Steynor 13 June 2014.

147 Woodhead, ‘Introduction’, pp. 18–22. For evidence of this, see Minutes, 13 May 1980, Derby Deanery Synod, D2104A/PI45/3, DRO.

148 On racial prejudice, see especially interview with Lloyd George Newby, 23 June 2015.

149 ‘Notes on assembly in school’.

150 Statistics taken from Hopkins and Gale, eds., Muslims in Britain, p. 10.

151 Interview with Geraldine and John Battie, 13 June 2014; interview with Tony and Helen Lyon.

152 A. Dinham and R. Jackson, ‘Religion, welfare and education’, in Woodhead and Catto, eds., Religion and change, pp. 272–94.

153 Interview with Raj Bali, 12 June 2014.

154 Interview with Praveena and Kanty Patel, 9 June 2014.

155 Interview with Edna Williamson.

156 Minutes, 27 Apr. 1982, Derby Diocesan Missionary and Ecumenical Council Minutes, BMU/HC/D102, CERC.

157 W. Kymlicka, Multicultural citizenship (Oxford, 1995).

158 This conflicts with the vision of multi-culturalism put forward by British sociologist T. Modood. See especially T. Modood, Multiculturalism: a civic idea (Cambridge, 2013), especially pp. 20–45. See also the 2000 Parekh Report, The future of multi-ethnic Britain (London, 2000).

159 M. Savage, Identities and social change in Britain since 1940 (Oxford, 2010), p. x.

160 See e.g. interview with Vida Johnson; interview with Mohammed Riasat.

161 Interview with Kamal Manan, 9 June 2014; interview with Avtar Singh, 14 June 2014.

162 Meer and Modood argue that integration and multi-culturalism can co-exist more easily than is sometimes suggested, an argument that the current article would support. Meer, N. and Modood, T., ‘The multicultural state were in: Muslims, “multiculture” and the “civic re-balancing” of British multiculturalism’, Political Studies, 57 (2009), pp. 473–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

163 There are hints of this in the interview with Mohammed Riasat, and interview with Raj Bali, 12 June 2014. ‘There is evidence of Islamic extremism in Derby after 2000, although the only known terrorist was radicalized while a student in London. R. Pantucci, ‘We love death as you love life’: Britain's suburban terrorists (London, 2015), pp. 172–5.