We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 February 2009
Between June 1940 and September 1942 the French colony of Madagascar was a part of the Vichy French empire and a life-line for supplies to French Indo-China. Governor Paul Annet's island administration assumed a critical importance to Britain and South Africa after the fall of Singapore in February 1942. Conscious of the precedent of Vichy's two-fold capitulation to Japanese demands upon Indo-China in August 1940 and July 1941, both the British and the American governments feared that Annet might follow suit, conceding to Japan the use of Madagascar's principal ports and air bases. This threat led to the invasion of Madagascar by British empire forces. The attack began in May 1942 and was completed by October. Much to General Charles de Gaulle's lasting annoyance, the Free French movement played no part in these operations, although the British installed a Free French administration at Tananarive in December. This article examines the Madagascar invasion in the light of this exclusion of the Free French. It measures the strategic importance of the island against the political damage caused to Anglo-Free French relations by the British rebuttal of de Gaulle. It is argued that the British government utilized the Madagascar takeover as a means to keep the French national committee in check, disregarding Free French proposals as a result. Albeit temporary, this generated political confusion within Madagascar itself.
1 Among more recent work, see: Gaunson, A. B., The Anglo-French clash in Lebanon and Syria, 1940–1945 (London, 1987)CrossRefGoogle Scholar and his earlier article, ‘Churchill, de Gaulle, Spears and the Levant Affair, 1941’, Historical Journal, XXVII, (1984), 697–713Google Scholar; see also Aviel, Roshwald, Estranged bedfellows. Britain and France in the Middle East during the Second World War (Oxford, 1990)Google Scholar. Roshwald too published an informative earlier article, ‘The Spears Mission in the Levant’, Historical Journal, XXIX, (1986), 897–919Google Scholar
2 An excellent account of the operations is by Major-General William Dimoline, one of the principal field commanders in the British invasion force, see: Dimoline, report, ‘Account of the operations of 22 East African Brigade, 10 Sept.–6 Nov. 1942’, Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives, King's College London, Dimoline papers VIII/5.Google Scholar
3 Michael, Howard, Grand Strategy, vol. IV (London, 1972), 150–1Google Scholar; Sir Llewellyn, Woodward, British foreign policy in the Second World War, vol. II (London, 1971), 326–32Google Scholar; Rennell, Lord of Rodd, , British military administration of occupied territories in Africa during the years 1941–1947 (London, 1948), chap, xGoogle Scholar; Harold, Macmillan, The blast of war, 1339–1945 (London, 1967), pp. 203–6Google Scholar; Thomas, R. T., Britain and Vichy. The dilemma of Anglo-French relations, 1940–42 (London, 1979), pp. 184–5Google Scholar, Thomas acknowledged that much had been left unsaid in the official recollections and histories of the Madagascar takeover.
4 Churchill, Winston S., The Second World War, Vol. IV The hinge of fate (London, 1951), pp. 197–212Google Scholar; for the Free French view, Charles de, Gaulle, Memoires de guerre, Vol II, L'Unité 1942–1944 (Paris, 1956), pp. 32–5.Google Scholar
5 Churchill, Hinge of fate, chap. 13; London, Public Record Office (P.R.O.), prime minister's office files, PREM 3/265/1–11; Charles de, Gaulle, Memoires de guerre, Vol 1, L'Appel, 1940–1942 (Paris, 1954), pp. 204–10Google Scholar; Jean Van Der, Poel (editor), Selections from the Smuts papers, Vol. VI, December 1934–August 1945 (Cambridge, 1973).Google Scholar
6 François, Kersaudy, Churchill and de Gaulle (London, 1981), pp. 185–92, 204–8.Google Scholar
7 Legentilhomme was an early military convert to Free France while still military governor of French Somaliland in June 1940, see: Jean, Lacouture, De Gaulle, I. The rebel, 1890–1944 (English trans., London, 1990), pp. 270–1.Google Scholar
8 Throughout this article the terms ‘Free French’ and ‘Fighting French’ will be used interchangeably. The French national committee preferred the second appellation (France combattante) from Bastille Day, 1942, and this was the more commonly used by British ministers and officials.
9 As examples, see P.R.O., Admiralty war history cases and papers, ADM 199/874 & ADM 199/1278.
10 Desmond Morton to Churchill, 17 Feb. 1941 & de Gaulle letter to Churchill, 16 Dec. 1941, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/1.
11 Prime minister's personal minute, 13 Dec. 1941, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/11, M(A)2.
12 Conference économique Africaine, note by Darlan, 5 March 1942, Vincennes, Paris, Service Historique de l'Armée de Terre (S.H.A.T.), 1P34/D2.
13 Ministère des colonies, état-major des colonies 3e bureau aide memoire ‘Madagascar’, 1 Oct. 1940, S.H.A.T., 1P34/D6; Lord Halifax to Eden, 10 May 1942, P.R.O., ADM 199/874.
14 Ministère de la marine, Bulletin du haut commandement, 14 March 1938, S.H.A.T., 2N246/D3 - défense des colonies; regarding SOE activities, see: Todd Mission reports, 7 & 12 Feb. 1942, P. R. O., SOE East Africa files, HS 3/28.
15 Regarding Cayla's actions while in Dakar, see: John, Kent, The internationalization of colonialism: Britain, France and Black Africa, 1939–1956 (Oxford, 1992), p. 30Google Scholar; regarding Vichy's response to the start of the British blockade, see: ministère des colonies, 3e bureau aide mémoire, 1 Oct. 1940, S.H.A.T., 1P34/D6.
16 Reneuve, president of committee of ‘La France Libre’, Tananarive, to war office military intelligence, Capetown, 16 Oct. 1941, P.R.O., WO 208/1518; Lord Harlech, high commissioner to South Africa, to dominions office, 23 Feb. 1942, foreign office files of British mission to French national committee, FO 892/147.
17 Ministère de guerre et de la defense nationale, C.C.D.C, procès-verbal, 8 June 1937, S.H.A.T., 2N246/3e section. At this early stage the French imperial defence planners only envisaged the possibility that Diego Suarez would be attacked by amphibious assault, rather than sea and air bombardment as well. For the Scapa Flow comparison, notes by Lt.-Commander Butler, G. G., ‘Operation Ironclad, the Madagascar operation’, 11 July 1942Google Scholar, Dimoline papers, VIII/I.
18 Ministère des colonies, état-major général des colonies, ‘Etude sur la Defense de Madagascar’, undated, March 1941, S.H.A.T., 1P34/D6.
19 Though without significantly better intelligence information than de Gaulle, the British government was more cautious. For instance, in November 1940, the British vice-consul in Majunga noted that Cayla's strong-arm administration had stifled any prospects that the French community would rally to Free France, see: Harlech to dominions office, 19 Nov. 1940, P.R.O., ADM 199/1277.
20 Morton to Strang, 23 Dec. 1941, P.R.O., FO 371/31897, Z23/23/17.
21 Admiralty director of plans memo. 22 June 1941 & senior naval intelligence officer, Capetown, to Admiralty naval intelligence directorate, 29 July 1941, P.R.O., ADM 199/1277. Although operations against Djibouti were precluded, Churchill assured de Gaulle on 14 May 1941 that the blockade of the city would be maintained, see: Roshwald, Estranged bedfellows, p. 65.
22 Churchill to Roosevelt, 7 Feb. 1942, in Kimball, Warren F. (ed.), Churchill & Roosevelt. The complete correspondence, I. Alliance Emerging (Princeton, 1984), doc. C-25Google Scholar; regarding Oceania bases, see: Kim, Munholland, ‘The trials of the Free French in New Caledonia, 1940–1942’, French Historical Studies, XIV, 4 (1986), 547–79.Google Scholar
23 CharlesPeakeTo A. V. Alexander, 4 March 1942, P. R. O., FO 892/133; Emile Muselier, Vice-Amiral, De Gaulle contre le Gaullisme (Paris, 1946), pp. 301–16.Google Scholar
24 Platt recalled colonial office views in his report on Madagascar operations: ‘Operations of East Africa Command 1941–1943’, 31 March 1943, P.R.O., colonial office defence/original correspondence, CO 968/3/12.
25 Morton to Strang, 23 Dec. 1941, P.R.O., FO 371/31897, Z23/23/17.
26 Minute by Strang, 20 Feb. 1942 & C.O.S.(42)132, 27 Feb. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31897, Z1750/23/17.
27 Churchill to chiefs of staff, 1 March 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/1.
28 Regarding the attack on Dakar, see the author's ‘The Anglo-French divorce over West Africa and the limitations of strategic planning, June-December 1940’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, 6, I , March 1995, 252–78.Google Scholar
29 Stephen, Roskill, Churchill and the Admirals (London, 1977), pp. 196–8.Google Scholar
30 Churchill minute to Eden, 7 March 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/1.
31 Halifax to Eden, 5 March 1942, P.R.O., ADM 199/1277.
32 For Vichy intentions, see: war office intelligence report, BJ. 102203, Vichy ministry of marine cypher, 14 March 1942, P.R.O., war office directorate of military intelligence, WO 208/1518.
33 Regarding the Berlin decrypt, see: Hinsley, F. H. et al. , British Intelligence in the Second World War, vol. 11 (London, 1981), p. 85Google Scholar; regarding Axis incursion: war office military intelligence conclusions to M. I.3(a), 22 March 1942, P. R. O., WO 208/1518. One author has noted that the discussions in Berlin produced a German-Japanese agreement regarding spheres of operation in the Indian Ocean, see: Brown, James A., Eagles strike. The campaigns of the South African Air Force in Egypt, Cyrenaica, Libya, Tunisia, Tripolitania and Madagascar 1941–1943 (Cape Town, 1974), p. 383.Google Scholar
34 The three outstanding recent works on events in Syria are Khoury, Philip S., Syria and the French mandate (Princeton, 1987)Google Scholar; Roshwald, A., Estranged bedfellowsGoogle Scholar; Gaunson, , The Anglo-French clash in Lebanon and SyriaGoogle Scholar. Major-General Sir Spears, E. L., Fulfilment of a mission (London, 1977)Google Scholar remains an excellent account, particularly when set beside General Catroux's version of events, General Georges, Catroux, Dans la Bataille de la Méditerranée, Egypte-Levant-Afrique du Nord 1940–1944 (Paris, 1949).Google Scholar
35 Catroux, , Bataille, p. 285Google Scholar; Roshwald, , ‘The Spears Mission in the Levant’, p. 901.Google Scholar
36 Ministère de la marine, secrétariat d'état, bulletin d'information no.42, 10 June 1941, S.H.A.T., 1P12/D1.
37 H. Hopkinson, Cairo, to W. H. B. Mack, 29 Aug. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/32002. The foreign office also occasionally blocked French national committee cypher traffic to the Free French colonial authorities, see: Eden to Churchill, 1 Oct. 1942, PREM 3/120/6.
38 Dominions office to Harlech, 18 Dec. 1941, P.R.O. Treasury finance division records/copy telegrams, T 160/1146/17006/3. Pechkoff worked in conjunction with the existing Free French representative in Pretoria, Vacher-Corbière. Regarding Sicé, see: Peake to foreign office, 19 Feb. 1942, FO 371/31897, Z1602/23/17.
39 Van Der, Poel, Selections from the Smuts papers, pp. 354 and 360.Google Scholar
40 C.F.R.(42), misc.3, 23 Jan. 1942, C.F.R.(42), misc.7, 13 Feb. 1942 & C. F. R. memo for Admiralty director of plans, 27 Jan. 1942, all P.R.O., ADM 199/1277; SOE memo ‘Madagascar mission’, 10 Feb. 1941, P.R.O., HS 3/10.
41 Conference économique africaine, procès-verbal, 18–20 Feb. 1942, S.H.A.T., 1P34/D2.
42 Smuts to Churchill, via Harlech, 12 Feb. 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/2.
43 C.F.R. meeting, 13 Feb. 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/2; foreign office to Harlech, 13 Feb. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31897.
44 Harlech to Cranborne, record of Sicé–Smuts meeting, 28 March 1942 & C.O.S. to Churchill, 28 Feb. 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/1; Churchill to Smuts, 24 March 1942, PREM 3/265/2.
45 Churchill to Ismay, 30 March 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/1.
46 Dominions office note for Churchill, 25 March 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/2.
47 Smuts to Churchill, via Waterson, 22 April 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/186/B. Syfret's Force 121 was composed of the carriers Illustrious and Indomitable, the battleship Ramillies, two cruisers, eleven destroyers and assorted auxiliary craft, see: Brown, , Eagles strike, p. 386.Google Scholar
48 Kersaudy, , Churchill and de Gaulle, p. 120Google Scholar. Kersaudy recounts the reversal in British views of Muselier after Churchill had him arrested in January 1941 on suspicion of having leaked information to Vichy regarding the abortive September 1940 attack on Dakar.
49 Peake to Eden, 6 March 1942, P.R.O., FO 892/133; Muselier, , De Gaulle contre le Gaullisme, pp. 334–47Google Scholar; Kersaudy, , Churchill and de Gaulle, pp. 186–192.Google Scholar
50 Memo by Sturges, ‘Summary of operation Ironclad’, undated, May 1942, P.R.O., WO 208/1520.
51 Darlan report on Madagascar to Pétain, 2 June 1942, S.H.A.T., 1P89/D3.
52 I.S.(Operations) notes on Madagascar, 22 Feb. 1942, P.R.O., WO 208/1519; regarding Portal's suggestion, see: C.O.S.(42) 140th meeting, 5 May 1942, war office director of military operations collation files, P.R.O., WO 193/884.
53 Churchill to Roosevelt, 14 March 1942, in Kimball, (ed.), Churchill & Roosevelt, doc. C-44Google Scholar; regarding the U.S. government statement to Laval, see: Treasury finance division summary of events in France, 2–16 May 1942, P.R.O., T 160/1146/17006/3.
54 Churchill to Syfret, 14 May 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/6.
55 Grafftey-Smith to Eden, 14 July 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/36138, Z8719/8/69.
56 Etat-major général des colonies, ‘Etude sur la défense de Madagascar’, undated, March 1941, S.H.A.T., 1P34/D6.
57 Transcript of Dimoline interview with war correspondent, G. Kinnear, 6 Nov. 1942, Dimoline papers, VIII/3.
58 Sturges to war office, 28 May 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/6; Syfret to Admiralty, 28 June 1942, P.R.O., ADM 199/874.
59 Syfret to Admiralty, 14 May 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/6.
60 Hollis to Churchill, 14 May 1942, Eden to Churchill, 18 May 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/6.
61 Churchill to Syfret, 15 May 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/6; Grafftey-Smith to Eden, 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/36138, Z8719/8/69.
62 Sturges to war office, 4 June 1942, P.R.O., WO 193/884; Grafftey-Smith to Eden, 1943, PRO., FO 371/36138.
63 Smuts to Churchill, via Harlech, 28 May 1942 & Eden to Churchill, 29 May 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/6.
64 Chiefs of staff note for Churchill, 30 May 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/6.
65 Syfret, war diary, 3 June - 9 July 1942, P.R.O., ADM 199/937. The attack on Ramillies was followed by a spate of attacks on merchant shipping in the Mozambique channel over the first fortnight of June. These attacks were undertaken by the Japanese 8th submarine flotilla led by Admiral Ishizaki. For more information, see: Brown, , Eagles strike, pp. 389–90.Google Scholar
66 203 mission, Pretoria, to war office, 21 J u n e 1942, P.R.O., WO 193/884.
67 Note by cabinet secretary, ‘Policy in Madagascar’, 8 June 1942, W. P.(42)242, P.R.O., CAB 66/33.
68 C.F.R.(42)14th meeting, 1 July 1942 & Sir R. Campbell to Eden, 20 July 1942, P.R.O., ADM 199/874.
69 Sturges to war office, 22 June 1942, P.R.O., WO 193/884; S. O. E., Durban station to Admiralty, 16 July 1942, P.R.O., ADM 199/1278. The Durban station warned that its operatives in Tananarive were insistent that Annet was deluding Sturges and Syfret in an effort to prevent a British march on the capital.
70 Eden to Grafftey-Smith, recording conversation with de Gaulle, 30 June 1942, P.R.O., ADM 199/1278.
71 Foreign office to Halifax, 22 Aug. 1942, P.R.O., ADM 199/1277; regarding Pechkoff, see: Platt to air ministry, 5 August 1942, P.R.O., WO 193/884.
72 Rear-admiral William Tennant, officer commanding 4th cruiser squadron, report on ‘operation Streamline Jane’, 6 Oct. 1942, P.R.O., ADM 199/1293. Reports by general Parisot, chief French delegate to the Italian armistice commission, on these further British advances confirm that Annet's forces were caught off guard: Parisot to general Maggiolini, president of Italian armistice commission, Turin, 11 Sept. 1942, S.H.A.T., 2P12/D5.
73 Annet, tel. 17 to ministry of colonies, 23 Sept. 1942, S.H.A.T., 1P34/D6; Platt to war office, 6 Nov. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/32151, Z8463/8463/17.
74 Smuts to Churchill & Harlech to Cranborne, both 26 Sept. 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/10.
75 Eden to Churchill, 29 Aug. 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/10.
76 Eden memo for Churchill, 22 Sept. 1942, Morton to Churchill, 22 Sept. 1942 & Morton's record of meeting with de Gaulle and Pleven, 30 Sept. 1942, all P.R.O., PREM 3/120/6; for de Gaulle's thinking regarding the Levant in September 1942, see Roshwald, , ‘Spears mission’, pp. 905–7.Google Scholar
77 Eden to Churchill, 29 Aug. 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/10.
78 Memo by Eden, , ‘Madagascar – future policy’, 10 Aug. 1942Google Scholar, W.P.(42)350, P.R.O., CAB 66/25.
79 C.F.R.(42)34th meeting, 6 Oct. 1942, P.R.O., ADM 199/874; regarding French national committee grievances, see: 203 mission, Pretoria, copy tel. to war office military intelligence, 8 Oct. 1942, P.R.O., ADM 199/1277.
80 Kersaudy, , Churchill and de Gaulle, pp. 150–2Google Scholar; Roshwald, , ‘Spears mission’, p. 907.Google Scholar
81 General Alphonse, Juin, Journal de marche, 14 Nov. 1942, S.H.A.T., 5P49/D1.Google Scholar
82 Memo by Morton, , ‘Support for General de Gaulle in France and Vichy colonies’, 23 Sept. 1942Google Scholar, W.P.(42)426, P.R.O., CAB 66/29.
83 Eden to Churchill, 21 Sept. 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/11. Eden warned the prime minister against following war office advice regarding settler opinion in Madagascar.
84 Eden to Churchill, 22 Sept. 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/11.
85 Churchill to Eden, 22 Sept. 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/11.
86 Darlan to General Barre, 10 Nov. 1942, S.H.A.T., 5P49/D1.
87 G. E. Millard to J. H. Peck (encloses text of Darlan's 6 Nov. proclamation), 24 Nov. 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/11; W. H. B. Mack record of meeting with Admiral Moreau, 1 Dec. 1942, papers of minister resident, Algiers, P.R.O., FO 660/4.
88 Grafftey-Smith to Eden, 14 July 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/36138, Z8719/8/69.
89 Memo by Legentilhomme, undated, Oct. 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/11.
90 Sturges to dominions office, letter 72, 11 Dec. 1942, P.R.O., dominions office, South African high commission correspondence, DO 119/1151.
91 Memo by Eden, , ‘Relations with General de Gaulle – Administration of Madagascar’, 9 Nov. 1942Google Scholar, W.P.(42)518, P.R.O., CAB 66/30.
92 Minute by C. N. Stirling, 9 Nov. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/32151, Z8618/8463/17.
93 Foreign office memo, ‘Exercise of jurisdiction in Madagascar’, 15 Nov. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/32151. Z8769/8463/17.
94 Grafftey-Smith to Eden, 14 July 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/36138, Z8719/8/69.
95 The fear that the Fighting French would impose conscription if given leeway to do so, was one that Mack in particular seems to have taken seriously, see: W. H. B. Mack to Sir R. Campbell, 10 June 1942, P.R.O., T 160/1146/17006/3.
96 Plan to war office, 16 Nov. 1942, P.R.O., ADM 199/1277.
97 S.T.O., Diego Suarez, to Admiralty, 31 Oct. 1942, report by Lord Rennell, 27 Nov. 1942, both P.R.O., ADM 199/874.
98 Regarding Muselier, see: Peake to Strang, 19 Jan. 1943, CO 968/87/7; regarding de Gaulle's military staff, see: Peake to Strang, 18 December 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/31954, Z10551/90/17. Commandant Schaeffer, Colonel Lombard and Colonel Billotte were the three staff members involved.
99 Minutes by Speaight and Strang, 19 & 20 Nov. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/32151, Z8760/8463/17.
100 Peake to Strang, 1 Dec. 1942 & Minute by Eden, 2 Dec. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/32153, Z9630/8463/17. The war office was not as hostile to de Gaulle as the foreign office assumed. War office military intelligence instructed Platt to consolidate support for Fighting France in Madagascar: war office to Platt, 10 Dec. 1942, P.R.O., PREM 3/265/11.
101 Memo by Lord, Rennell, ‘Transfer of the administration of Madagascar’, 22 Nov. 1942Google Scholar, & minute by Strang, 2 Dec. 1942, P.R.O., FO 371/32153, Z9615/8463/17.
102 Naval officer commanding, Mauritius, to C-in-C Eastern fleet, 5 Dec. 1942, P.R.O., ADM 199/1293.
103 Grafftey-Smith to Eden, 14 July 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/36138, Z8719/8/69.
104 Strang record of meeting at foreign office, 13 May 1943, PRO., T 160/1151/17400/03.
105 F.F.L. record of meeting at war office to determine Madagascar military requirements, 17 June 1943, & General Leyer, chef de l'état-major général, guerre, to inter-allied rearmament committee, undated, Sept. 1943, both S.H.A.T., 7P238/Colonies/Force Franchises Libre.
106 Leyer to G.O.C., Levant, 17 Sept. 1943 & General Smallwood to Leyer, 7 Dec. 1943, S.H.A.T., 7P238/Colonies/F.F.L.
107 Grafftey-Smith to Eden, 10 Aug. 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/36138, Z8719/8/69.
108 Foreign office minute by Strang, 17 Aug. 1943, P.R.O., FO 371/36138, Z8719/8/69.
109 Foreign office to Halifax, 2 Jan. 1943, ADM 199/180; Eden to Peake, 28 Dec. I942.P.R.O., FO 660/12.
