1 McNamara, Joann and Wemple, Suzanne, ‘Sanctity and power: medieval women’, Becoming visible: women in European history, eds. Bridenthal, Renate and Koonz, Claudia (Boston, 1977), p. 116; also see pp. 107, 112–14.
1 Joan Kelly-Gadol, ‘Did women have a renaissance?’, ibid. p. 148.
3 Davis, Natalie, ‘City women and religious change’, Society and culture in early modern France (Stanford, 1975), p. 72; ‘Women on top’, ibid. p. 126.
4 Beik, William, Absolutism and society in seventeenth-century France: state power and provincial aristocracy in Languedoc (Cambridge, 1985), pp. 223–44;Greengrass, Mark, ‘Noble affinities in early modern France: the case of Henri I de Montmorency, constable of France’, European History Quarterly, XVI (1986), 275–311.
5 Harding, Robert, Anatomy of a power elite: the provincial governors of early modern France (New Haven, 1978), pp. 127, 129. The exceptional powers and distinctive political role of women of the royal family deserve separate study. See, for example, Greengrass, Mark, ‘Mary dowager queen of France’, Mary Stewart, Queen in Three Kingdoms, ed. Lynch, Michael (London, 1988), pp. 271–313.
6 There were exceptions such as Marie de Gournay. See Horowitz, Maryanne Cline, ‘Marie de Gournay, editor of the Essais of Michel de Montaigne: a case study in mentor-protégée friendship’, The Sixteenth-Century Journal, XVII (1986), 271–84.
7 Jean-Pierre Labatut is an exception. He notes that ‘the ties of kinship through women have great importance and help to explain numerous careers, although historians have been especially attachedto the study of patrilineal lineages’. See Labatut, Jean-Pierre, ‘La fidélité du due de Navailles’, in Durand, Yves (ed.), Hommage à Roland Mousnier: clientéles et fidéliés en Europe à l'époque moderne (Paris, 1981), p. 190. See also Sharon Kettering, ‘Patronage and kinship in early modern France’, forthcoming in French Historical Studies.
8 , J. Russell Major, ‘Noble income, inflation, and the wars of religion in France’, American Historical Review, LXXXVI (1981), 38.
9 Eurich, Susan Amanda, ‘The economy of patronage’, a chapter in ‘Anatomy of a fortune: the house of Foix-Navarre-Albret’ (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Emory University, 1987), pp. 28–30, 35. I am indebted to Professor Eurich for making this unpublished material available to me.
10 Boucher, Jacqueline, Société et mentalités autour de Henri III, 4 vols. (Paris, 1981), I, 148; idem, La com de Henri III (Paris, 1986); Boutier, Jean et al. , Un lour de France royal: Le voyage de Charles IX, 1564–1566 (Paris, 1984), p. 112.
11 Battifol, Louis, La vie intime d'une reine de France au XVIIe siècle: Marie de Médicis, 2 vols. (Paris, 1908), I, 138.
12 Griselle, Eugène, Etat de la maison du roi Louis XIII (Paris, 1912), pp. 83–8.
13 Ibid. pp. 160–5;Dethan, Georges, Gaston d'Orléans: conspirateur et prince charmant (Paris, 1959), pp. 351–2.
14 Franklin, Alfred, La vie privée d'autrefois: La vie de Paris sous Louis XIV: Tenue de maison et domesticité (Paris, 1898), pp. 1–203.
15 d'Avenel, Georges, La noblesse française sous Richelieu (Paris, 1901), pp. 53–4, 184.
16 Babeau, Albert, La vie rurale dans l'ancienne France (Paris, 1883), pp. 173–4, cites Madame de Sévignés letter of 22 July 1671; Fairchilds, Cissie, Domestic enemies: servants and their masters in old regime France (Baltimore, 1984), p. 12;de Ribbe, Charles, Une grande dame dans son ménage au temps de Louis XIV d'après le journal de la comtesse de Rochefort (1689) (Paris, 1889), p. 137.
17 Coste, Jean-Paul, La ville d' Aix en 1695. Structure urbaine et société, 3 vols. (Aix, 1970), II, 717, 960;Dewald, Jonathan, The formation of a provincial nobility: the magistrates of the parlement of Rouen, 1499–1600 (Princeton, 1980), pp. 226–7;Fairchilds, , Domestic enemies, pp. 1–20.
18 Kettering, Sharon, Patrons, brokers, and clients in seventeenth-century France (Oxford, 1986), pp. 214–21.
19 Sturdy, D. J., The D'Aligres de la Rivière (London, 1986), p. 16;Kleinman, Ruth, Anne of Austria: queen of France (Columbus, Ohio, 1985), pp. 79–80, 108–10, 146–7.
20 Greengrass, , ‘Mary, dowager queen of France’, p. 272.
21 Dewald, , The formation of a provincial nobility, pp. 281–2.
22 Diefendorf, Barbara, Paris city councillors in the sixteenth century (Princeton, 1983), pp. 176–7, 281.
23 Fairchilds, Cissie, Poverty and charity in Aix-en-Provence, 1640–1789 (Baltimore, 1976), p. 67. Dessert, Daniel, Argent, pouvoir et société au grand siècle (Paris, 1984), p. 364.
24 Chêne, Roger Du, ‘Argent et families au XVIIe siècle: Mme de Sévigné et les Grignans’, Provence historique XV (1965), 221.
25 Fairchilds, , Poverty and charity, p. 67. Also see Diefendorf, , Paris city councillors, pp. 279–97; idem, ‘Widows and remarriage in sixteenth-century Paris’, Journal of Family History, VII (1982), 379–95.
26 Kleinman, , Anne of Austria, pp. 178–9;Bergin, Joseph, Cardinal Richelieu: power and the pursuit of wealth (Yale, 1985), pp. 129–30.
27 Sturdy, , The D'Aligres, p. 169.
28 Kettering, Sharon, Judicial politics and urban revolt: The Parlement of Aix, 1629–1659 (Princeton, 1978). P. 235.
29 Fairchilds, , Poverty and charity, pp. 67–8.
30 Diefendorf, , Paris city councillors, pp. 279–88. On inheritance laws in general, see ibid. pp. 258–78;Mousnier, Roland, The institutions of France under the absolute monarchy, 1568–1789, vol. I.: Society and the State, (Chicago, 1979), pp. 66–77;Ladurie, Emmanuel Le Roy, ‘A system of customary law: family structures and inheritance customs in sixteenth-century France’, Family and society eds. Forster, Robert and Ranum, Orest (Baltimore, 1976), pp. 75–103; originally appeared in Annales: Economies, Sociélés, Civilisations, XXVII (1972), 825–46.
31 Kalas, Robert, ‘Wealth, place, and power in sixteenth-century France: the rise of the Selve and Noailles families’ (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1982), pp. 308–9, 311–14.
32 Ibid. pp. 462–73. Also see Kalas, Robert, ‘The Selve family of Limousin: members of a new elite in early modern France’, The Sixteenth-Century Journal XVIII (1987), 147–72.
33 Russell, J. Major, ‘The crown and the aristocracy in RenaissanceFrance’, American Historical Review, LIX (1964), 634.
34 William Weary, ‘The house of La Trémoille, fifteenth through eighteenth centuries: change and adaptation in a French noble family’, Journal of Modern History on demand publication, D1008.
35 Marvick, Elizabeth, The Young Richelieu (Chicago, 1983), p. 42.
36 Bergin, , Cardinal Richelieu, pp. 264–92.
37 On the escalation of dowries, see Dewald, , The formation of a provincial nobility, pp. 127–30, 263–8; Harding, , Anatomy of a power elite, pp. 113, 145–7;Labatut, Jean-Pierre, Les dues et pairs de France au XVIIe; siècle (Paris, 1972), pp. 253–4;Forster, Robert, The house of Saulx-Tavannes: Versailles and Burgundy, 1700–1830 (Baltimore, 1971), pp. 5–6, 120. Dessert, , Argent, p. 364.
38 Kleinman, , Anne of Austria, pp. 20–2, 28–9.
39 Forster, Elborg, A woman's life in the court of the Sun King(Baltimore, 1984), p. 5.
40 Kettering, , Judicial politics, p. 233.
41 Forster, Robert, Merchants, landlords, magistrates: the Depont family in eighteenth-century France (Baltimore, 1980), pp. 60–1.
42 Major, ‘Noble income’, pp. 29–30.
43 Kleinman, , Anne of Austria, p. 21.
44 Harding, , Anatomy of a power elite, p. 144.
45 See note 30 above; also see Lepointe, Gabriel, Droit romain et ancien droit franfais: Régimes matrimoniaux, liberalités, succession (Montchrestien, 1958); idem, La famille dans l'ancien droit, 4th edn (Domat-Montchrestien, 1953);Fagniez, Gaston, La femme et la société française dans la première moitié du XVIIe siècle (Gamber, 1929);Portemer, Jean, ‘Reflexion sur les pouvoirs de la femme selon le droit français au XVII3 siècle’, XVIIe si1ecle, XXXVI (1984), 189–99.
46 Boucher, Société et mentalités, vol. I, 156–7.
47 Major, ‘Noble income’, p. 39.
48 Holt, Mack, ‘Patterns of clientèle and economic opportunity at court during the wars of religion: the household of François, Duke of Anjou’, French Historical Studies XIII (1984), 307 n. 8, 309–11.
49 Roelker, Nancy, Queen of Navarre, Jeanne d'Albret (Cambridge, Mass., 1968), p. 25.
50 Eurich, , ‘The economy of patronage’, p. 47;Kalas, , ‘Wealth, place, and power’, p. 235.
51 Eurich, , ‘The economy of patronage’, p. 48.
53 Ibid. pp. 48, 50–2. Also see Ritter, Gerhard, Catherine de Bourbon, 2 vols. (Pau 1987).
54 Weary, William, ‘Royal policy and patronage in renaissance France: the monarchy and the house of La Trémoille’ (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1972), pp. 110–11;Holt, , ‘Patterns of clientéle’ 305–22.
54 Eurich, Susan Amanda, ‘The economy of patronage: the household and entourage of Henri de Navarre (1572–1587)’, paper presented at the annual conference of the Western Society for French History, Baltimore, 11 1986, pp. 6–10, to be published in the fourteenth annual proceedings of the society;Roelker, , Queen of Navarre, pp. 108, 126, 397.
56 Bibliothèque Méjanes, Aix-en-Provence, MS 377, ‘Mémoire abrégé sur la vie de Magdeleine de Gaillard-Longjumeau de Ventabren de Vend’ Archives des Affaires Etrangères, Paris (henceforth cited as A.A.E.), 1723, fos. 127–127V, April 23, 1667, the baron d'Oppède to Cardinal Mazarin.
57 Dewald, , The formation of a provincial nobility, pp. 88–9.
58 Eurich, , ‘The economy of patronage’ (dissertation), p. 9.
69 Bergin, , Cardinal Richelieu, pp. 45–6. Also see Kermina, Franchise, Marie de Médicis: reine, régente et rebelle (Paris, 1979);Lightman, Harriet, ‘Sons and mother: queens and minor kings in French constitutional law’ (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Bryn Mawr, 1981); idem, ‘Political power and the Queen of France: Pierre Dupuy's treatise on regency governments’, Canadian Journal of History, XXI (1986), 299–312.
60 Dethan, , Gaston d'Orléans, pp. 109, 126, 128, 156–71, 219–20, 222–4, 372–5.
61 Roelker, , Queen of Navarre, pp. 14–15, 122–3, 127.
62 Kleinman, , Anne of Austria, pp. 33–4;Marvick, Elizabeth, The young Richelieu, pp. 173–4.
63 Mousnier, , The institutions of France, vol. I, Society and state, p. 345.
64 Labatut, , Les dues et pairs de France, pp. 228–9.
65 Roelker, , Queen of Navarre, p. 127.
66 Marvick, , The young Richelieu, pp. 170–1.
67 Bergin, Joseph, Cardinal de La Rochefoucauld: leadership and reform inthe French church (New Haven, 1987), pp. 8–16.
69 Sedgwick, Alexander, Jansenism in seventeenth-century France: voices from the wilderness (Charlottesville, 1977), pp. 14–15. Professor Sedgwick is working on a full-length study of the Arnauld family.
70 Buisseret, David, Henry IV (London, 1984), p. 123.
71 Rubin, Elaine, ‘The heroic image: women and power in early seventeenth-century France, 1610–1661’ (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, George Washington University, 1977), pp. 150–1. Also see Sheppard, Lancelot, Barbe Acarie, wife and mystic (London, 1953).
72 Isherwood, Robert, Music in the service of the king (Ithaca, 1973), pp. 55–113;McGowan, Margaret, L'artdu ballet de cour en France, 1581–1643 (Paris, 1963). Also see Cloulas, Yvan, Catherine de Médcis (Paris, 1984);Orieux, Jean, Catherine de Médicis (Paris, 1986).
73 Roelker, , Queen of Navarre, pp. 18, 31–2, 36, 122.
74 Eurich, , ‘The economy of patronage’ (dissertation), p. 30.
76 Clarke, J. A., Huguenot warrior: the life and times of Henri de Rohan, 1579–1638 (The Hague, 1966), pp. 8–9.
77 Jourda, Pierre, Marguerite d'Angoulême, duchesse d'Alençon, reine de Navarre, 2 vols. (Paris, 1930);Febvre, Lucien, Autour de L'Heptaméron: amour sacré, amour profane (Paris, 1944);Heller, Henry, ‘Marguerite of Navarre and the reformers of Meaux’, Bibliothèque d' humanisme et renaissance, XXXIII (1971), 271–310;Lefranc, Abel, ‘Marguerite de Navarre et le platonisme français de la Renaissance’, Grands êcrivains français de la Renaissance (Paris, 1914), pp. 139–250.
77 Davis, , ‘City women and religious change’, p. 72. Also see Dilles, Georges, Les dames des Roches: Etude sur la vie littéraire à Poitiers dans la deuxième moitié du XVIe Siècle (Paris, 1936);Keating, L. Clark, Studies on the literary salon in France, 1550–1615 (Cambridge, Mass., 1941).
78 Lougee, Carolyn, Les paradis desfemmes: women and social stratification in seventeenth-century trance (Princeton, 1976);Picard, Roger, Les salons littéraires et la société française, 1610–1780 (New York, 1943);Mongrédien, Georges, Madeleine de Scudéry et son salon (Paris, 1946);Magne, Emile, La vie quotidienne au temps de Louis XIII (Paris, 1948), pp. 206–48. The career of Jean-Samuel Depont, the confidant and protégé of a salon hostess who helped him to make his way, is an example of the social power of French noblewomen in the eighteenth century. Forster, , Merchants, landlords, magistrates, pp. 121–2, 126.
79 Ranum, Patricia, ‘Mademoiselle de Guise ou les défis de la quenouille’, XVIIe siècle, XXXVI (1984), 222–5; idem, ‘Etienne Loulié (1654–1702): musicien de Mile de Guise, pédagogue et théoricien’, Recherches sur la musique française classique, XXV (1987), 25–73; idem, ‘A sweet servitude: a musical life at the court of Mile de Guise’, Early Music, xv (1987), 346–60.
80 Lougee, , Les paradis des femmes, pp. 29–30, 48, 178.
81 Bergin, , Cardinal Richelieu, p. 287.
82 Leuvron, Jacques, Les courtisans (Paris, 1961), partially translated as ‘Louis XIV's courtiers’ in Hatton, Ragnhild (ed.), Louis XIV and absolutism (Columbus, Ohio, 1976), PP. 130–53, see p. 145.
83 McCollim, Gary, ‘The formation of fiscal policy in the reign ofLouis XIV: the example of Nicolas Desmaretz, Controller General of Finances (1708–1715)’ (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State, 1979), pp. 200–1. The list was dated 23 March 1708, and was written by de La Garde.
84 Leuvron, , ‘Louis XIV's courtiers’, pp. 144–5. Etienne Moulle promised 7,000 livres to Madame de Noailles to obtain for him a share in a traité des élus contrôleurs des tailles, which she was able to do without difficulty. Dessert, , Argent, p. 347.
85 Ladurie, Emmanuel Le Roy, ‘Versailles observed: the court of Louis XIV in 1709’, The mind and method of the historian, trans. Sian, and Reynolds, Ben (Chicago, 1981), p. 154;idem, ‘Auprès du roi, la Cour’, Annales: Economies, Sociétés, Civilisations, XXXVIII (1983), 21–41.
86 A.A.E., 1725, fo. 20, 15 July 1660.
87 Saint-Germain, Jacques, Les financiers sous Louis XIV: Paul Poisson deBourvalain (Paris, 1950), pp 182–87; cited by McCollim, , ‘The formation of fiscal policy’, pp. 204–6;Dessert, , Argent, p. 346.
88 Clarke, Huguenot warrior, p. 16.
89 Bonney, Richard, The king's debts: finances and politics in France, 1589–1661 (Oxford, 1981), p. 77;Kleinman, , Anne of Austria, pp. 10, 33, 38;Marvick, , The young Richelieu, pp. 172–3.
90 Kleinman, , Anne of Austria, pp. 151–2.
91 Ibid. pp. 107–10, 180–3.
92 Harding, , Anatomy of a power elite, p. 34.
93 Baumgartner, Frederic, Henry II, King of France 1547–1559 (Durham, N.C., 1988), pp. 55–8, 96–7. Also see Erlanger, Philippe, Diane de Poitiers, déesse de la Renaissance (Paris, 1976).
94 Harding, , Anatomy of a power elite, p. 41;Neuschel, Kristen, ‘The prince of Condé and the nobility of Picardy: a study of noble relationships in sixteenth-century France’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Brown University, 1982), p. 71, recently published as Word of honor: interpreting noble culture in sixteenth-century France (Ithaca, 1989);Benedict, Philip, Rouen during the wars of religion (Cambridge, 1981), pp. 116–17. Also see de Pimodan, Georges, La mère des Guises: Antoinette de Bourbon (Paris, 1925).
95 Dewald, , The formation of a provincial nobility, p. 88.
96 Kalas, , ‘Wealth, place, and power’, pp. 376–9.
97 Eurich, , ‘The economy of patronage’ (dissertation), p. 52.
98 Ibid. pp. 49–50;Roelker, , Queen of Navarre, p. 417. Also see Eruich, ‘Women, brokerage, and aristocratic service: the case of Marguerite de Selve’, a paper presented at the fifteenth annual conference of the Western Society for French History at New Mexico StateUniversity in October 1987, to be published in the proceedings of the society.
99 Monmerqué, Louis (ed.), Lettres de Madame de Sévigné, 14 vols. (Paris, 1862–1866), II, 504.
100 Ibid. II, 75, 16 May 1672.
101 Ibid. 335–6, 28 December 1672; IV, 48, 12 August 1675.
102 Ibid. III, 336, 28 December 1673.
103 Ibid. I, 69, 432 and n. 1;Aubenas, J. A., Histoire de Madame de Sévigné (Paris, 1842), p. 250. Also see Rowen, Herbert, The ambassador prepares for war: the Dutch embassy of Arnauld de Pomponne, 1669–1671 (The Hague, 1957).
104 Monmerqué, , Lettres de Sévigné, v, 153, 9 12 1676.
105 de Cosnac, Comte Jules (ed.), Mémoires de Daniel de Cosnac (Paris, 1852, reprinted New York, 1968), pp. 226, 228, 231–2, 236.
106 Roelker, , Queen of Navarre, p. 110.
107 Ibid. pp. 14–15;Kalas, , ‘Wealth, place, and power’, pp. 376–9. Also see Jourda, Pierre (ed.) Correspondance de Marguerite d'Angoulême (Paris, 1930).
108 Louis's oldest brother, Antoine de Bourbon, was married to Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of Navarre, who was his sister-in-law and who openly declared her Calvinism around 1560. Louis himself had married Eléonore de Roye in 1511. She was the great-niece of Anne de Montmorency, another Huguenot with whom Louis may have had a patron-client relationship. Eléonore had preceded Louis in adopting the reformed faith. She and her mother, Madeleine de Mailly, were among the earliest prominent converts to the new faith: Madeleine's mother was Louise de Montmorency, who had been encouraged in her reform tendencies by Marguerite deNavarre, a well-known protector of early religious reformers. Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, a Huguenot leader, wasLouise de Montmorency's son by a later marriage, and thus Condé's half-uncle by marriage. Neuschel, Kristen, ‘The prince of Condé’, pp. 74–5, 112–3, 148–54. Also seeDelumeau, Jean, L'Amiral Coligny et son temps (Paris, 1974);Shimizu, Jean, Conflict of loyalties: politics and religion in the career of Gaspard de Coligny, admiral of France, 1519–1572 (Geneva, 1970).
109 Roelker, , Queen of Navarre, p. 164.
110 Roelker, Nancy, ‘The appeal of Calvinism to French noblewomen in the sixteenth century’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, II (1972), 391–419;idem, ‘The role of noblewomen in the French Reformation’, Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte, LXIII (1972), 168–95;Davis, Natalie, ‘City women and religious change’, Society and Culture, pp. 65–95.
111 Dethan, , Gaston d'Orléans, pp. 108–17, 128;Caldicott, C. E. J., ‘Le Gouvernement de Gaston d'Orléans en Languedoc (1644–1660) et la carrière de Molière’, XVIFe siècle, CXVI (1979), 17–42;Gachon, Paul, Histoire de Languedoc (Paris, 1921), pp. 160–2;Beik, , Absolutism and society, pp. 235–6.
112 Logié, Paul, La Fronde en Normandie 3 vols. (Amiens, 1951), III, 12–20.
113 Major, ‘The crown and the aristocracy in Renaissance France’, pp. 637–8.
114 A.A.E., 1721, fos. 127–127v, 23 April 1657, the baron d'Oppède to Mazarin.
115 Roelker, , Queen of Navarre, pp. 20–1, 26, 48–51, 55–6, 64–6.
116 Kleinman, , Anne of Austria, pp. 74, 79, 82–3.
