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² Hajnóczy József közjogi-politikai munkái (The political writings of József Hajnóczy) (published by Andor Csizmadia)(Budapest, 1958), pp. 27–96, 153–85, 285–303Google Scholar; A magyar jakobinusok iratai (Documents of the Hungarian jacobins)(published by Kálmán Benda)(3 vols., Budapest, 1952–1957), II, IIIGoogle Scholar. On its interpretation see Benda, Kálmán, Emberbarát vagy hazafi? Tanulmányok a felvilágosodás korának magyarországi történetéböl (Philanthropist or patriot? Studies on the Hungarian history of the Age of Enlightenment)(Budapest, 1978), pp. 105–212Google Scholar. See also Anton Piringer, Piringer, Anton, Ungarns Banderien und desselben gesetzmässige Kriegsverfassung überhaupt (2 vols., Wien, 1810–1816)Google Scholar; Gustermann, Anton Wilhelm, Die Ausbildung der Verfassung des Königreichs Ungarn (2 vols., Wien, 1811)Google Scholar; as well as Csáky, Moritz, Von der Aufklärung zum Liberalismus. Studien zum Früihliberalismus in Ungarn (Wien, 1981), pp. 57–169Google Scholar; Poór, János, Kényszerpályák nemzedéke, 1795–1815 (The entrapped generation) (Budapest, 1988)Google Scholar.

³ Széchenyi, Count István, Hitel (Trust) (Pest, 1830)Google Scholar; idem, Világ, vagyis felvilágosító töredékek némi; hiba 's elóítélet eligazítására (Light, or some enlightening fragments for the rectification of certain errors and prejudices) (Pest, 1831); idem, Stadium (Leipzig, 1833); idem, Hunnia (1835) (Pest, 1858); Wesselényi, Baron Miklós, Balítéletekról (On prejudices)(Bucharest [ = Leipzig], 1833)Google Scholar; Kölcsey Ferenc összes múvei (Complete works of Ferenc Kölcsey, CWFK)(published by József Szauder-Mrs józsef Szauder) (3 vols, Budapest, 1960), II, 27–39, 102–11, 152–6, 341–629Google Scholar; Kossuth Lajos összes munkái (Complete works of Lajos Kossuth, CWFK), VI (published by István Barta)(Budapest, 1966), 368–97Google Scholar; Deák Ferenc beszédei (The speeches of Ferenc Deák) (collected by Manó Kónyi), 2nd edn (6 vols., Budapest, 1903), I, 147–8, 218–60, 443, 466–8Google Scholar; Széchenyi, Count István, A Kelet népe,1841 (The people of the east) (Pozsony, 1841)Google Scholar; idem, A magyar Akadémia körül (Around the Hungarian Academy) (Pest, 1842).

₄ Constant, Benjamin, De la liberté chez les modernes. Écrits politiques (ed. by Gauchet, Marce)(Paris, 1980), pp. 491–515Google Scholar; Berlin, Isaiah, Four essays on liberty (Oxford, 1979), pp. 118–72Google Scholar; see also de Ruggiero, Guido, The history of European liberalism (tr. by Collingwood, R. G.)(Oxford, 1927)Google Scholar; Laski, Harold J., The rise of European liberalism. An essay in interpretation (London, 1936)Google Scholar; Hayek, Friedrich A., The constitution of liberty (London, 1967), pp. 11–130Google Scholar; Skinner, Quentin, The foundations of modern political thought (2 vols., Cambridge, 1978)Google Scholar; Wealth and virtue: the shaping of political economy in the Scottish enlightenment (ed. by Hont, István and Ignatieff, Michael) (Cambridge–New York, 1983)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Appleby, Joyce, Capitalism and anew social order. The republican vision of the 1790s (New York–London, 1984), pp. 15–23Google Scholar; von Mises, Ludwig, Liberalism in the classical tradition (tr. by Raico, Ralph)(New York–San Francisco, 1985), pp. 1–59Google Scholar; Gray, John, Liberalism (Minneapolis, 1986)Google Scholar; Pangle, Thomas L., The spirit of modern republicanism. The moral vision of the American founders and the philosophy of Locke (Chicago–London, 1988), pp. 262–79Google Scholar. Cf. Bibó, István, The paralysis of international institutions and the remedies. A study of self-determination, concord among the major powers, and political arbitration (Hassocks, Sussex, 1976)Google Scholar; idem, Misère des petits états d' Europe de l' est (tr. by György Kassai)(Paris, 1986), pp. 7–209; idem, Democracy, revolution, self-determination (Selected writings, ed. by Károly Nagy, tr. by András Boros-Kazai)(Boulder–Highland Lakes, 1991), pp. 13–86, 155–327, 357–521; idem, Zur Judenfrage: am Beispiel Ungams nach 1944 (tr. by Béla Rásky)(Frankfurt am Main, 1990); idem, Die deutsche Hysterie. Ursachen und Geschichte (tr. by Hans-Henning Paetzke)(Frankfurt am Main–Leipzig, 1991); idem, Die Misere der osteuropäische Kleinstaaterei, tr. Béla Rásky (Frankfurt am Main, 1992).

⁵ The most famous of the plans concerning the political structure of the hereditary lands include: Anon. [ = Victor von Andrian-Werburg]: Oesterreich und dessen Zukunft (2 vols., Hamburg, 1843–1847)Google Scholar (French version De l' Autriche et son avenir (Paris, 1843))Google Scholar. On the interpretation of the plans and the situation: Redlich, Joseph, Das Österreichische Staats- und Reichsproblem (2 vols., Leipzig, 1920–1926), I/I, 59–88, esp. 77, 1/2, 20–2Google Scholar; Jászi, Oszkár, The dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy (Chicago, 1929), XIX, 11, 77, 164Google Scholar; Kann, Robert A., Das Nationalitätenproblem der Habsburgermonarchie (2 vols., Graz-Köln, 1964), 1, 65–8, 11, 97–100CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, A history of the Habsburg Empire, 1526–1918 (Berkeley–Los Angeles–London, 1980), pp. 290–9, 367–405; Macartney, C. A., The Habsburg Empire, 1790–1918 (New York, 1969)Google Scholar; Deák, István, The lawful revolution. Louis Kossuth and the Hungarians, 1848–1849 (New York–London, 1979)Google Scholar. See also János, Andrew C., The politics of backwardness in Hungary, 1825–1845 (Princeton, New Jersey, 1982)Google Scholar; Gildea, Robert, Barricades and borders. Europe, 1800–1914 (Oxford–New York, 1987), pp. 57–82Google Scholar; Langewiesche, Dieter (ed.), Liberalismus im 19. Jahrhundert. Deutschland im europāischen Vergleich (Göttingen, 1988), pp. 11–208, 455–98Google Scholar; Sheehan, James J., German history, 1770–1866 (Oxford, 1989)Google Scholar; Ferenc Huoranszki, A német liberalizmus elméleti forrásai (The theoretical sources of German liberalism), in Szabadság és nemzet. Liberalizmus és nacionalizmus Kó;zép- és Kelet- Európában (Liberty and nation. Liberalism and nationalism in East Central Europe) (ed. by Denes, I. Z.)(Budapest, 1993), pp. 16–37Google Scholar; Erdõdy, Gábor, A 19. századi német liberalizmus (19th-century German liberalism), in Liberty, pp. 38–111Google Scholar; Heiszler, Vilmos, A ‘K.K. Privilegierter Hofliberalismus’: Az osztrák-németek identitásproblémái (Identity problems of Austro-German liberals), in Liberty, pp. 112—22Google Scholar; Szabó, Miklós, A magyar nemesi liberalizmus, 1825–19190 (Hungarian gentry liberalism), in Liberty, pp. 150–81Google Scholar; Urban, Otto, A cseh liberalizmus, 1848–1918 (Czech liberalism), in Liberty, pp. 182–212Google Scholar. Cf. Bibó, , Misère des petits états, PP. 393–442Google Scholar.

⁶ On prejudices, pp. 155–62, 283–302; The speeches of Ferenc Deák, 1, 147–8, 258–60; 1843-ik esztendi pünkösd hava 14-ik napjára rendeltetett magyarországi közgyũlésnek irományai, 4 vols. (Records of the Hungarian diet held on the 14th day of the months of Whitsuntide in the year 1843) (Pozsony, 1843/1844), v, 87–8Google Scholar; Az 1843/44-ik évi magyar országgyũlési alsótábla kerületi üiléseinek naplója, 6 vols. (The diary of the district sessions of the lower house of the Hungarian diet in the year 1843–4)(ed. by Kovács, Ferenc)(Budapest 1894), vi, 408–9, 485–9, 505–8Google Scholar; Ellenõr. Politikai zsebkönyv (Observer. Political almanac)(ed. by [Bajza, József])(Germany [ = Leipzig], 1847), pp. 224–90Google Scholar; CWLK, xi, pp. 152–7, 168–96.

⁷ Diary of district sessions of 1843/44 diet, III, 460, 472, 480; [Kossuth, Lajos] Zala s az adó (Zala [county] and the tax), Pesti Hírlap (Pest Journal), 13 04 1843Google Scholar; idem, A pillanat kénytelensége (The compulsion of the moment), PJ, 20 April 1843; Apponyi, Count Karoly, ‘Az országlási modor’ egyúj neme (A new way of the ‘manner of government’), I–II, PJ 27, 30 04 1843Google Scholar; Wesselényi, Baron Miklós, Nemzeti kórállapot (A diagnosis of the nation's state), I–VII, PJ, 15, 18, 22, 25, 29 June, 2, 16 07 1843Google Scholar; Kossuth], [LajosA kérdések legkényesbike (The most delicate question), I–II, PJ, 20, 23 07 1843Google Scholar; idem, Adalék a teendõk többi részéhez (Some comments on the rest of the tasks), PJ, 27 July 1843; idem, A megyék (The counties), PJ, 9 Nov 1843. Precedents: idem, Megyei hatáskbör (County authorities), PJ, 6 Jan. 1842; idem, Megyei szerkezet (County structure), PJ, 17 April 1842; idem, Ismét is ismét adó (Tax again and again), PJ, 24 April 1842. See also Kemény, Zsigmond, Korteskedés és ellenszerei (Electioneering and its antidotes) (2 vols., Kolozsvár, 1843/1844)Google Scholar, Eötvös, Baron József, Reform (Leipzig, 1846), pp. 19–176Google Scholar. A valuable elaboration of the relation between county authority and the cause of reforms in a historical perspective: Varga, János, Megye és haladás a refomkor derekán (1840–1843) (The counties and progress in the middle of the age of reforms), I–IIGoogle Scholar, Somogy megye múltjábol. Léveltári évkönyv (From Somogy county's past. Archival Year-Book) (ed. by Kanyar, József), 11–12 (Kaposvár, 1980/1981), 1, 177–243, 11, 155–94Google Scholar.

⁸ Diary of district sessions of 1843/44 diet, IV, 17–18, 20, 22, 24–7, 36, VI, 184–95, 408–9, 485–9, 505–8; Records of the 1843/44 diet, V, 17, 71–2, 81, 87–8; Observer, pp. 244–90; 1847-ik esztendei Szent András hava 7-ik napjára rendeltetett magyarországi közgyűlésnek irományai (Records of the Hungarian diet held on the 7th day of the month of St Andrew [November] in the year 1847) (Pozsony–Pest, 1847/48), pp. 6–41, 43–4, 70–1, 77–8; 1847-ik esztendei Szent András hava 7-ik napjára rendeltetett magyarországi közgyűlésnek naplója a tekintetes karoknál és rendeknél (Diary of the lower house of the Hungarian diet held on the 7th day of St Andrew's, [11] in the year 1847) (Pozsony-Pest, 1847/1848), pp. 24–43Google Scholar; CWLK, XI, pp. 152–7, 168–96, 311–34, 341–3, 345–8, 380–1, 391–406, 408–9, 412–13, 422–5, 428–9, 619–28; 1847-ik esztendei Szent András hava 7-ik napjára rendeltetett magyarországi közgyűlésnek naplója a méltóságos főrendeknél (Diary of the upper house of the Hungarian diet held on the 7th day of St Andrew's, month in the year 1847) (Pozsony–Pest, 1847/1848), pp. 7–132Google Scholar.

⁹ Gróf Széchenyi István írói és hírlapi vitája Kossuth Lajossal (The polemical writings of Count István Széchenyi and Lajos Kossuth) (ed. and intr. by Viszota, Gyula) (2 vols., Budapest, 1927, 1930), I, 690–743, II, 441–9, 508–620, 663–70, 682–832Google Scholar; Varga, , The counties and progress, II, 179–86Google Scholar; Varga, János, Helyét kereső Magyarország. Politikai eszmék és koncepciók az 1840-es évek elején (Hungary in search of an identity. Political principles and ideals at the beginning of the 1840s) (Budapest, 1982), pp. 141–185Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Hajnal, István, A Batthyány-kormány külpolitikája (The foreign policy of the Batthyány government) (Budapest, 1957)Google Scholar; Szabad's, György contribution, in Vita Magyarország kapitaliz-muskori fejlődéséről (A debate on Hungary's development in the modern age) (Budapest, 1971), pp. 87–96Google Scholar; Szabad, György, Kossuth politikai pályája ismert és ismeretlen megnyilatkozásai tükrében (Kossuth's political career in the light of his statements, well and less well known) (Budapest, 1977), pp. 86–110Google Scholar; Varga, , Hungary in search of an identity, pp. 115–41Google Scholar; Szabad, György, Magyarország önálló államiságának kérdése a polgári átalakulás korában (The problem of Hungary's sovereignty in the period of capitalist transformation) (Budapest, 1986), pp. 19–34Google Scholar; Urbán, Aladár, Batthyány Lajos miniszterelnöksége (The premiership of Lajos Batthyány) (Budapest, 1986)Google Scholar; Erdődy, Gábor, A magyar kormányzat európai látóköre 1848-ban (The European horizon of the Hungarian government in 1848) (Budapest, 1988)Google Scholar.

¹¹ Gróf Dessewffy Aurél összes művei (Complete works of Count Aurél Dessewffy, CWAD) (published by József Ferenczy) (Budapest, 1887), pp. 201–12Google Scholar; Magyar Országos Levéltár (Hungarian National Archives, HNA), A cserneki és tarkeői Dessewffy család levéltára (Archives of Dessewffy family of Csernek and Tarkeő), Familiaria, 2nd series, Irregestrata, Dessewffy Aurél naplójegyzetei az 1839/40. évi országgyűlésröl (Diary entries of Aurél Dessewffy about the diet of 1839/40); HNA, Archivum regni, Diaetae, Diaeta anni 1839/40, Diary of the upper house, p. 476; HNA, Documents from Viennese archives, Reports about the sessions of the Hungarian diets, 1708–1848, Ungarischer Landtag vom Jahre 1839/40, Darstellung und Charakteristik, Regalisten, pp. 758–60; HNA, Archivum palatinale, Palatinus archiducis Josephi, Archivum secretum Palatinale archiducis Josephi, Praesidialia, 1841, p. 128. The letter of József Havas to Alajos Mednyánszky (Pest, 20, 28 Nov. 1841), the letter of Alajos Mednyánszky to Palatine Joseph (Buda, 7 Dec. 1841), the letter of Palatine Joseph to Alajos Mednyánszky, draft (Buda, 9 Dec. 1841); Staatsarchiv, Wien, Kabinettsarchiv, Staatskonferenzakten a. 1841, pp. 159–519.

¹² Bibó, , Democracy, pp. 421–521, esp. pp. 447–68Google Scholar.

¹³ The polemics of Széchenyi and Kossuth, I, 3–8, 13–23, 33–196, 215–27, 249–78, 280–6, 292–7, 303–20, 337–86, 389–402, 419–71, 479–528, 535–51, 561–95, 599–661, 690–743; II, 3–106, 129–241, 262–5, 276–86, 305–16, 330–94, 434, 437–8, 441–55, 457–620, 622, 635–42, 658–70, 682–832, 974–9, 1021–30, 1044–5, 1094–1158. The most recent bibliography of the vast Széchenyi literature containing works of widely varying quality: Szentkirályi, Elemér, Kalauz Széchenyi István megismeréséhez (A guide to István Széchenyi) (Budapest, 1987)Google Scholar. Useful interpretations: Barany, George, Stephen Széchenyi and the awakening of Hungarian nationalism, 1791–1841 (Princeton, New Jersey, 1968)Google Scholar, Gergely, András, Széchenyi eszmerendszerének kialakulása (The formation of Széchenyi's system of ideas) (Budapest, 1972)Google Scholar. Fundamentally important: Varga, , Hungary in search of an identity, esp. pp. 141–85Google Scholar; Szabad, Hungary's sovereignty.

¹⁴ ‘False realism’ was a term used by István Bibó (1911–79). See Bibó, , Misère des petits états, pp. 133–209, esp. pp. 165–9Google Scholar; pp. 395–442, esp. pp. 426–7.

¹⁵ CWAD, pp. 201–12; Varga, , Hungary in search of an identity, pp. 9–24, 185–93Google Scholar; Dénes, Iván Zoltán, ‘The political role of Hungary's nineteenth-century conservatives and how they saw themselves’, The Historical Journal, XXVI (1983), 845–65Google Scholar; idem, Közüggyé emelt kiváltságőrzés A magyar konzervativok szerepe és értékvilága az 1840-es években (Protection of privilege in the name of public interest. The political role and value system of Hungarian conservatives during the 1840s) (Budapest, 1989).

¹⁶ Trust, Light, On prejudices, CWLK VI, 368–87 (there are some parallels among Jefferson's, Wesselényi's, Kossuth's and Lincoln's underlying assumptions); CWFK II, 341–629; The speeches of Ferenc Deák I, 218–60, 443, 466–8; Felelet gróf Széchenyi Istvánnak Kossuth Lajostól (Lajos Kossuth's reply to Count István Széchenyi) (Pest, 1841)Google Scholar; Eötvös, Baron József, Kelet népe és Pesti Hírlap (People of the East and Pest Journal) (Pest, 1841)Google Scholar; Gorove, István, Nemzetiségünk, jelenünk szempontjából (Our nationality in view of our present) (Pest, 1842)Google Scholar; Pulszky, Ferenc, Centralizáció, I–IVGoogle Scholar, PJ, 10, 13, 17, 20 Feb. (1842). Cf. Ignatieff, Michael, ‘Smith, Rousseau and the republic of needs’ in Scotland and Europe, 1200–1850 (ed. by Smout, T. C.) (Edinburgh, 1986), pp. 187–206Google Scholar. See also Pocock, J. G. A., The Machiavellian moment. Florentine political thought and the Atlantic republican tradition (Princeton, New Jersey, 1975), pp. 333–552Google Scholar; idem, Virtue, commerce and history. Essays on political thought and history, chiefly in the eighteenth century (Cambridge, 1985); Politics, language and time. Essays on political thought and history (Chicago–London, 1989)Google Scholar; Appleby, Mew social order.

¹⁷ Herder, Johann Gottfried, Zur Philosophie der Geschichte, II, 476Google Scholar. Jászi, Oszkár compared the national anthems of the lands of the Habsburg Empire in Dissolution, pp. 447–8Google Scholar. Most illuminating is István Bibós interpretation of the Dutch anthem and its comparison with Rákóczi, Ferenc II's manifesto beginning with the words Recrudescunt vulnera inclytae gentis Hungariae of 1704, Democracy, pp. 421–521, esp. pp. 497–502Google Scholar. On the similarity between the Hungarian and Uruguayan, and partly the Italian and Greek anthems, Hankiss, Elemér, Társadalmi csapdák. Diagnózisok (Social traps. Diagnoses) (Budapest, 1983), pp. 348–9Google Scholar. A self-evident analogy is the Polish national anthem. Let me emphasize here again that besides the Himnusz (Anthem) written by Ferenc Kölcsey in 1823 (CWFK I, 100–2) Mihály Vörösmarty's Szózat (Address) of 1836 also functions as an anthem in the collective consciousness of the Hungarians. The latter is preoccupied with the danger of the nation's death even more than Kölcsey's poem: Vörösmarty Mihály összes költői müvei (Collected poems of Mihály Vörösmarty, CPMV) (2 vols. published by Károly Horváth and András Martinkó) (Budapest, 1972), I, 368–70Google Scholar. Cf. Colley, Linda, Britons. Forging the nation 1707–1837 (New Haven–London, 1992)Google Scholar.

¹⁸ CWFK, II, 370, 396, 581; CWLK, I, 42, II, 402–4, 418, 425–49, III, 702–3; The speeches of Ferenc Deák I, 43–6; Vörösmarty, Mihály, Az élő szobor (The living statue), in CPMV, I, 436–8Google Scholar; Divéky, Adorján, Magyarok és lengyelek a XIX. században (Hungarians and Poles in the 19th century) (Budapest, 1919)Google Scholar; Kovács, Endre, A lengyel kérdés a reformkori Magyarországon (The Polish question in the age of reform Hungary) (Budapest, 1959)Google Scholar; Gerő, András, A gondolkodás polgárosodása. A lengyel felkelők melletti érvek az 1832–36 – os országgyűlésen (The embourgeoisement of thinking. Arguments for the Polish insurgents voiced at the diet of 1832–6) in A magyar polgári átalakulás kérdései. Tanulmányok Szabad Gyórgy 60. születésnapjára (Questions of the capitalist transformation in Hungary. Studies in honour of Gyorgy Szabad) (ed. by Dénes, I. Z., Gergely, A. and Pajkossy, G.) (Budapest, 1984), pp. 133–55Google Scholar; Cf. Skowronek, Jerzy, The direction of political change in the era of national insurrection, 1795–1864, in A republic of nobles. Studies in Polish history to 1864 (ed. by Fedorowicz, J. K., Bogucka, Maria and Samsonowicz, Henryk) (Cambridge–London–New York, 1982), pp. 258–81Google Scholar; Davies, Norman, God's playground. A history of Poland (2 vols., Oxford, 1985), II, 81–111, 306–39Google Scholar; idem, Heart of Europe. A short history of Poland (Oxford–New York, 1986), pp. 158–69, 175–278; Janowski, Maciej, Lengyel liberalizmus a 19. században (Polish liberalism), in Liberty, pp. 213–48Google Scholar.

¹⁹ de Custine, Marquis, La Russie en 1839 (4 vols., Bruxelles, 1844)Google Scholar, in English; Empire of the Czar. A journey through eternal Russia (foreword by Boorstin, Daniel, introduction by Kennan, George F.) (New York–London–Toronto–Sydney–Oakland, 1989)Google Scholar. See Kennan, George F., The Marquis de Custine and his Russia in 1839 (London, 1972)Google Scholar; Pipes, Richard, Russia under the Old Regime (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, 1979)Google Scholar. Cf. Berlin, Isaiah, Russian thinkers (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, 1978)Google Scholar.

²⁰ Országos Széchényi Könyvtár, Kézirattár (National [Ferenc] Széchényi Library, Archives, NSZLA), Letters. Letter of Deák, Ferenc to Oszterhuber, József (Pest, 10–16 11 1842)Google Scholar. In print in Hungarian, : Történelmi Szemle (Historical Review) (1979), pp. 263–75Google Scholar, in French, , Acta Historica (1980), pp. 180–95 (published by Pál Sándor)Google Scholar. Vörösmarty, Mihály, Fóti dal (Song from Fót), in CPMV I, 456–61Google Scholar; Wesselényi, Baron Miklós, Szózat a magyar és szláv nemzetiség ügyében (Address on behalf of the Hungarian and Slavic nationalities) (Leipzig, 1843)Google Scholar; Varga, , Hungary in search of an identity, pp. 93–114Google Scholar; Szabad, , Hungary's sovereignty, pp. 27–31Google Scholar.

²¹ The people of the east.

²² Around the Hungarian Academy.

²³ CWAD, pp. 39–40, 46–52, 68–72; Count Antal Szécsen, Nemzetiség (Nationality), Világ (Light, L) 27 08 1842Google Scholar; idem, Nemzetesítési törekvéink s a szláv mozgalmak (Our nationality and the Slavic movements), L, 7 Jan. 1943; Anon. [Emil Dessewffy]: Parlagi eszmék, igénytelen nézetek, szerénytelen tervek a függő kérdések s az ország gyűlése körül (Uncouth ideas, simplistic views, immodest plans regarding the problematic questions and the diet) (Pest, 1843), pp. 22–8Google Scholar.

²⁴ Count János Majláth, Gr[óf] Dessewffy Aurél – vágtatási és konzervatív elvek gyökérkülönbsége (Count Aurél Dessewffy – The basic difference between the radical and conservative principles). Nemzeti Újság (National Journal, NJ), 8 02 1843Google Scholar; X.U. [ = Sándor Lipthay], Az aranybulla s ellene forralt demokratai küzdelmek (The Golden Bull [of 1222] and the subversive activity of the democrats against it), NJ, 3 May 1843; District diary, 1843/44, VI, 184–95; anon. [Emil Dessewffy], Legyünk őszinték (Let's be honest), II, Budapesti Híradó (Budapest News, BN) 8 May, 1846; NSZLA, Department of Manuscript, Analecta 11085. Anon. [Emil Dessewffy], Konzervatív pártprogram (Platform of the Conservative party). Cf. The polemics fcv of Széchenyi and Kossuth, II, 682–832. See also Diary of the upper house of the 1847/48 diet, pp. 7–132.

²⁵ Count Aurél Dessewffy, Nyilatkozat és igazolás (Statement and apology), L, 24 11 1841Google Scholar. Cf. Kossuth, Lajos, Példa külföldről (An example from abroad), PJ, 8 12, 1841Google Scholar. See also Moore, Barrington Jr, The social origins of dictatorship and democracy. Lord and peasant in the making of the modern world (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, 1979), pp. 3–39Google Scholar.

²⁶ F[erenc] K[állay], Jellemrajzok az alkotmányos élet s kormányrendszerek köréből (Character sketches from constitutional life and government systems), I, England I–II, France I–II, NJ, 7, 9, 11, 12 Sept. 1845; idem, A porosz liberálisok (Prussian liberals), NJ, 9 Oct. 1845; idem, Pauperismus. I–II, NJ, 10, 12 March 1846; idem, A dolgozó néposztály állapota Angliában jelen társadalmi állásunkhoz intőleg felmutatva (Consequences of the condition of the working classes in England in view of our social state), I–II, NJ, 30 Apr., 4 May 1847. Cf. Anon. [Count Antal Szécsen], Honoráciorok (Non-noble intellectuals), I–II, BN, 12, 15 Aug. 1845; Kállay's, Ferenc sources: Ioannes Limnaeus, Notitia regni Franciae (2 vols., Argentor [ = Strasbourg], 1655)Google Scholar; Hallam, Henry, View of the state of Europe during the middle ages (2 vols., London, 1818)Google Scholar: The constitutional history of England (2 vols., London, 1827)Google Scholar; Jarcke, Carolus Ernestus, Commentatio de summis principiis juris Romani (Göttingen, 1822)Google Scholar; Bülau, Friedrich, Encyclopädie der Staatswissenschaften (Leipzig, 1832)Google Scholar; idem, Darstellung der europäischen Verfassungen in den seit 1828 darin vorgegangenen Veränderungen (Leipzig, 1841); Bülow-Cummerow, , Die europäischen Staaten nach ihren innern und äussern politischen Verhältnissen (Altona, 1845)Google Scholar; Raynouard, M., Histoire du droit municipal en France, sous la domination Romaine et sous les trois dynasties (2 vols., Paris, 1829)Google Scholar; Mémoires du Chancelier Pasquier, 1789–1820 (6 vols., éd. d'Audiffret-Pasquier, M. Le due, Paris, 1893–1894)Google Scholar; Wachsmuth, Wilhelm, Geschichte der europäischen Staaten, 6 vols. Geschichte Frankreichs im Revolutionszeitalter (Hamburg, 1844)Google Scholar.

²⁷ Kállay, Ferenc, A Szózat kritikai bírálatja (A critique of the address) (Pest, 1843)Google Scholar; Északamerikai állapotok (The situation in North America), I–II, NJ, 21, 23 Oct. 1845. His main source: von Raumer, Friedrich, Die Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika, I–II (Leipzig, 1845)Google Scholar. The criticized liberal works: Bölöni, Sándor Farkas, Utazás Észak-Amerikában (A journey in North America) (Kolozsvár, 1834)Google Scholar; Julius, Nikolaus Heinrich, Nordamerikas sittliche Zustände nach eigenen Anschauungen in den Jahren 1834, 1835 und 1836 (2 vols., Leipzig, 1839)Google Scholar; de Tocqueville, Alexis, De la démocratie en Amérique (3 vols., Bruxelles, 1837–1840)Google Scholar; its excellent and complete Hungarian translation: Tocqueville, Elek, A demokrácia Amerikában (4 vols., tr. by Fábián, Gábor, Buda, 1841–1843)Google Scholar. Cf. Bryce, James, The American commonwealth (2 vols., New York, 1911)Google Scholar; Becker, Carl L., The Declaration of Independence. A study in the history of political ideas (New York, 1970)Google Scholar; Bailyn, Bernard, The ideological origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, Massachusetts–London, 1967)Google Scholar; Ekirch, Arthur A. Jr, The decline of American liberalism (New York, 1980)Google Scholar; Appleby, New social order.

²⁸ I reconstructed the above position from the writings of Emil Dessewffy, Antal Szécsen, Sándor Lipthay and Ferenc Kállay. See more details in Dénes, Conservatives; idem, Protection of privilege.

²⁹ A systematic analysis of the liberals' image of foreign countries is still to be done. The reconstruction attempted in this paper is based first of all on the analysis of articles, essays and treatises published in the Pest Journal, Erdélyi Híradó (Transylvanian News) and Jelenkor (Our Time), besides the relevant pamphlets, collections of political writings (e.g. Magyar Szózatok [Hungarian addresses] published in Hamburg in 1847 and the above-mentioned Observer) and the discussions in the diet. Lack of space prevents the listing of the sources in detail. For the image of America see Szabad, György, Kossuth on the political system of the United States of America in Études historiques hongroises (2 vols., Budapest, 1975), I, 501–13Google Scholar; Vörös, Károly, The image of America in Hungarian mass culture in the nineteenth century, in Études historiques hongroises (3 vols., Budapest, 1985), II, 647–62Google Scholar. Cf. Jedlicki, Jerzy, ‘The image of America in Poland, 1776–1945’, Reviews in American History (12 1986), pp. 669–86Google Scholar.

³⁰ Szabad, György, Hungarian political trends between the revolution and the compromise (1849–1867) (Budapest, 1977)Google Scholar. Cf. Evans, Robert J. W., ‘Hungary and the Habsburg monarchy 1849–1867: a study in perceptions’, Études danubiennes (1986/1991), pp. 18–39Google Scholar.

³¹ Szekfű, Gyula, Három nemzedék. Egy hanyatló kor története (Three generations. The history of a declining era, Budapest, 1920)Google Scholar; idem, A tizenkilencedik és huszadik század (the 19th and 20th centuries), in Bálint Hóman-Gyula Szekfű, Magyar történet (A history of Hungary) (7 vols., Budapest, no date). Cf. Dénes, Iván Zoltán, A “realitás” illúziója. A historikus Szekfű Gyula pályafordulója (The illusion of “realism”. The turn of Gyula Szekfű's career) (Budapest, 1976)Google Scholar; Barany, George, ‘Three generations: Szekfű's Széchenyi portrait’, East European Quarterly, XVIII (2) (1984), 143–153Google Scholar. See also Bibó, , Misère des petits états, pp. 393–442Google Scholar.