Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-2lccl Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T23:50:27.077Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

One for All? State Violence and Insurgent Cohesion

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 February 2023

Livia Isabella Schubiger Open the ORCID record for Livia Isabella Schubiger [Opens in a new window]
Livia Isabella Schubiger*
Affiliation:
Department of Politics and International Relations, Nuffield College, University of Oxford, UK
*
Email: livia.schubiger@politics.ox.ac.uk
Get access

Abstract

What effect does state violence have on the cohesiveness and fragmentation of insurgent organizations? This article develops a theory of how state violence against civilians affects insurgent cohesion and fragmentation in civil war. It argues that the state-led collective targeting of an armed group's alleged civilian constituency increases the probability of insurgent fragmentation, defined as the process through which insurgent organizations split into distinct entities, each with its own social composition, goals, and leadership. This effect is driven by the interaction of several mechanisms at the individual, group, and organizational levels: state-led collective targeting enlarges the supply of fresh recruits, strengthens the bonds between immediate group members (interpersonal cohesion), and disrupts intra-organizational coordination, strategic unity, and institutional arrangements that underpin the commitment of individual fighters to the organization as a whole (ideological cohesion). The implications of this argument are empirically tested in an analysis of armed groups fighting against their governments between 1946 and 2008. The results suggest that campaigns of massive state violence directed against the civilian constituency of rebel groups increase the overall risk of insurgent fragmentation, a finding that has important implications for the duration and escalation of civil wars.

Type
Research Article
Information
International Organization , Volume 77 , Issue 1 , Winter 2023 , pp. 33 - 64
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2023. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The IO Foundation

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Asal, Victor, Brown, Mitchell, and Dalton, Angela. 2012. Why Split? Organizational Splits Among Ethnopolitical Organizations in the Middle East. Journal of Conflict Resolution 56 (1):94–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakke, Kristin M., Cunningham, Kathleen Gallagher, and Seymour, Lee J.M.. 2012. A Plague of Initials: Fragmentation, Cohesion, and Infighting in Civil Wars. Perspectives on Politics 10 (2):265–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balcells, Laia, and Kalyvas, Stathis N.. 2014. Does Warfare Matter? Severity, Duration, and Outcomes of Civil Wars. Journal of Conflict Resolution 58 (8):1390–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ball, Patrick, Kobrak, Paul, and Spirer, Herbert F.. 1999. State Violence in Guatemala, 1960–1996: A Quantitative Reflection. American Association for the Advancement of Science.Google Scholar
Bearman, Peter S. 1991. Desertion as Localism: Army Unit Solidarity and Group Norms in the US Civil War. Social Forces 70 (2):321–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bilefsky, Dan. 2011. Factional Splits Hinder Drive to Topple Syria Leader. New York Times, 8 December.Google Scholar
Box-Steffensmeier, Janet M., and Jones, Bradford S.. 2004. Event History Modeling: A Guide for Social Scientists. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braithwaite, Jessica Maves, and Cunningham, Kathleen Gallagher. 2019. When Organizations Rebel: Introducing the Foundations of Rebel Group Emergence (FORGE) Dataset. International Studies Quarterly 64 (1):183–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butcher, Charles, Goldsmith, Benjamin E., Nanlohy, Sascha, Sowmya, Arcot, and Muchlinski, David. 2020. Introducing the Targeted Mass Killing Data Set for the Study and Forecasting of Mass Atrocities. Journal of Conflict Resolution 64 (7–8):1524–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cederman, Lars-Erik, Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede, and Buhaug, Halvard. 2013. Inequality, Grievances and Civil War. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cederman, Lars-Erik, Hug, Simon, Schubiger, Livia I., and Villamil, Francisco. 2020. Civilian Victimization and Ethnic Civil War. Journal of Conflict Resolution 64 (7–8):1199–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cederman, Lars-Erik, Wimmer, Andreas, and Min, Brian. 2010. Why Do Ethnic Groups Rebel? New Data and Analysis. World Politics 62 (1):87–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chernick, Marc. 2007. FARC-EP: Las Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia-Ejército del Pueblo. In Terror, Insurgency, and the State: Ending Protracted Conflicts, edited by Heiberg, Marianne, Brendan O'Leary, John Tirman. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 51–81.Google Scholar
Cohen, Dara Kay. 2010. Explaining Sexual Violence During Civil War. PhD diss., Stanford University.Google Scholar
Cohen, Dara Kay. 2017. The Ties that Bind: How Armed Groups Use Violence to Socialize Fighters. Journal of Peace Research 54 (5):701–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Commission for Historical Clarification. 1999. Guatemala: Memory of Silence. Report of the Commission for Historical Clarification. Conclusions and Recommendations. Die Friedens-Warte 74 (4):511–47.Google Scholar
Condra, Luke N., and Shapiro, Jacob N.. 2012. Who Takes the Blame? The Strategic Effects of Collateral Damage. American Journal of Political Science 56 (1):167–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Costa, Dora L., and Kahn, Matthew E.. 2008. Heroes and Cowards: The Social Face of War. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Cunningham, David E. 2006. Veto Players and Civil War Duration. American Journal of Political Science 50 (4):875–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cunningham, David E., Gleditsch, Kristian S., and Salehyan, Idean. 2009. It Takes Two: A Dyadic Analysis of Civil War Duration and Outcome. Journal of Conflict Resolution 53 (4):570–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Degregori, Carlos Iván. 2012. How Difficult It Is to Be God: Shining Path's Politics of War in Peru, 1980–1999. Edited and with an introduction by Stern, Steve J.. University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Eck, Kristine. 2010. Recruiting Rebels: Indoctrination and Political Education in Nepal. In The Maoist Insurgency in Vietnam: Revolution in the Twenty-First Century, edited by Lawoti, Mahendra and Phahari, Anup K., 33–51. Routledge.Google Scholar
Elster, Jon. 2006. Is Collective Action Theory Relevant for the Study of Civil War? Draft prepared for the PRIO Workshop on First Movers, 16–17 August 2006.Google Scholar
English, Richard. 2004. Armed Struggle: The History of the IRA. Pan Books.Google Scholar
Fjelde, Hanne, Hultman, Lisa, Schubiger, Livia, Cederman, Lars-Erik, Hug, Simon, and Sollenberg, Margareta. 2021. Introducing the Ethnic One-Sided Violence Dataset. Conflict Management and Peace Science 38 (1):109–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fjelde, Hanne, and Nilsson, Desiree. 2018. The Rise of Rebel Contenders: Barriers to Entry and Fragmentation in Civil Wars. Journal of Peace Research 55 (5):551–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foster, Margaret. 2019. Over Pressure: Grassroots-Driven Transformation of (Militant) Organizations. Unpublished manuscript, Duke University.Google Scholar
Gates, Scott. 2002. Recruitment and Allegiance: The Microfoundations of Rebellion. Journal of Conflict Resolution 46 (1):111–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gates, Scott. 2017. Membership Matters: Coerced Recruits and Rebel Allegiance. Journal of Peace Research 54 (5):674–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gill, Paul, and Horgan, John. 2013. Who Were the Volunteers? The Shifting Sociological and Operational Profile of 1240 Provisional Irish Republican Army Members. Terrorism and Political Violence 25 (3):435–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodwin, Jeff. 2001. No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945–1991. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gorriti, Gustavo. 1999. The Shining Path: A History of the Millenarian War in Peru. Translated by Kirk, Robin. University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Gutiérrez Sanín, Francisco. 2008. Telling the Difference: Guerrillas and Paramilitaries in the Colombian War. Politics and Society 36 (1):3–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gutiérrez Sanín, Francisco. 2012. The Dilemmas of Recruitment: The Colombian Case. In Understanding Collective Political Violence, edited by Guichaoua, Yvan, 175–95. Palgrave MacMillan.Google Scholar
Gutiérrez Sanín, Francisco, and Wood, Elisabeth Jean. 2014. Ideology in Civil War: Instrumental Adoption and Beyond. Journal of Peace Research 51 (2):213–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gutiérrez-Sanín, Francisco, and Wood, Elisabeth Jean. 2017. What Should We Mean by “Pattern of Political Violence”? Repertoire, Targeting, Frequency, and Technique. Perspectives on Politics 15 (1):20–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hainmueller, Jens. 2012. Entropy Balancing for Causal Effects: A Multivariate Reweighting Method to Produce Balanced Samples in Observational Studies. Political Analysis 20 (1):25–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamill, Heather. 2011. The Hoods: Crime and Punishment in Belfast. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hanson, Kolby. 2021. Good Times and Bad Apples: Rebel Recruitment in Crackdown and Truce. American Journal of Political Science 65 (4):807–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harbom, Lotta, Melander, Erik, and Wallensteen, Peter. 2008. Dyadic Dimensions of Armed Conflict, 1946–2007. Journal of Peace Research 45 (5):697–710.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harff, Barbara. 2003. No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust? Assessing Risks of Genocide and Political Mass Murder Since 1955. American Political Science Review 97 (1):57–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henderson, William Darryl. 1979. Why the Vietcong Fought: A Study of Motivation and Control in a Modern Army in Combat. Greenwood.Google Scholar
Hoover Green, Amelia. 2011. Repertoires of Violence Against Noncombatants: The Role of Armed Group Institutions and Ideologies. PhD diss., Yale University.Google Scholar
Hoover Green, Amelia. 2016. The Commander's Dilemma: Creating and Controlling Armed Group Violence. Journal of Peace Research 53 (5):619–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoover Green, Amelia. 2017. Armed Group Institutions and Combatant Socialization: Evidence from El Salvador. Journal of Peace Research 54 (5):687–700.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2012. World Report 2012: Syria. Events of 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2016. World Report 2016: Syria. Events of 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imai, Kosuke, Kim, In Song, and Wang, Erik. 2018. Matching Methods for Causal Inference with Time-Series Cross-Sectional Data. Working paper, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2006. The Logic of Violence in Civil War. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N., and Kocher, Matthew Kocher. 2007. How “Free” Is Free Riding in Civil Wars? Violence, Insurgency, and the Collective Action Problem. World Politics 59 (2):177–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenny, Paul D. 2010. Structural Integrity and Cohesion in Insurgent Organizations: Evidence from Protracted Conflicts in Ireland and Burma. International Studies Review 12 (4):533–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenny, Paul D. 2011. Organizational Weapons: Explaining Cohesion in the Military. Working paper 107, Households in Conflict Network, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex.Google Scholar
Khawaja, Marwan. 1993. Repression and Popular Collective Action: Evidence from the West Bank. Sociological Forum 8 (1):47–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kocher, Matthew Adam, Pepinsky, Thomas B., and Kalyvas, Stathis N.. 2011. Aerial Bombing and Counterinsurgency in the Vietnam War. American Journal of Political Science 55 (2):201–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krcmaric, Daniel. 2018. Varieties of Civil War and Mass Killing: Reassessing the Relationship Between Guerrilla Warfare and Civilian Victimization. Journal of Peace Research 55 (1):18–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyall, Jason. 2009. Does Indiscriminate Violence Incite Insurgent Attacks? Evidence from Chechnya. Journal of Conflict Resolution 53 (3):331–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacCoun, Robert J., Kier, Elizabeth, and Belkin, Aaron. 2006. Does Social Cohesion Determine Motivation in Combat? An Old Question with an Old Answer. Armed Forces and Society 32 (4):646–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mason, T. David. 2004. Caught in the Crossfire: Revolutions, Repression, and the Rational Peasant. Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar
Mason, T. David, and Krane, Dale A.. 1989. The Political Economy of Death Squads: Toward a Theory of the Impact of State-Sactioned Terror. International Studies Quarterly 33 (2):175–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLauchlin, Theodore. 2015. Desertion and Collective Action in Civil Wars. International Studies Quarterly 59 (4):669–79.Google Scholar
McLauchlin, Theodore, and Pearlman, Wendy. 2012. Out-Group Conflict, In-Group Unity? Exploring the Effect of Repression on Intramovement Cooperation. Journal of Conflict Resolution 56 (1):41–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Metzger, Shawna K., and Jones, Benjamin T.. 2022. Getting Time Right: Using Cox Models and Probabilities to Interpret Binary Panel Data. Political Analysis 30 (2):151–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mironova, Vera. 2019. From Freedom Fighter to Jihadists: Human Resources of Non-state Armed Groups. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mosinger, Eric S. 2017. Brothers or Others in Arms? Civilian Constituencies and Rebel Fragmentation in Civil War. Journal of Peace Research 55 (1):62–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mosinger, Eric S. 2019. Balance of Loyalties: Explaining Rebel Factional Struggles in the Nicaraguan Revolution. Security Studies 28 (5):935–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagel, Robert Ulrich, and Doctor, Austin C.. 2020. Conflict-Related Sexual Violence and Rebel Group Fragmentation. Journal of Conflict Resolution 64 (7–8):1226–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nillesen, Eleonora, and Verwimp, Philip. 2009. Rebel Recruitment in a Coffee Exporting Economy. Research working paper 11, MICROCON (Micro Level Analysis of Violent Conflict).Google Scholar
O'Leary, Brendan. 2007. IRA: Irish Republican Army (Óglaigh na hÉireann). In Terror, Insurgency, and the State, edited by Heiberg, Marianne, O'Leary, Brendan, and Tirman, John, 189–227. University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Obayashi, Kazuhiro. 2018. Rebel Recruitment and Information Problems. Routledge.Google Scholar
Oppenheim, Ben, Steele, Abbey, Vargas, Juan F., and Weintraub, Michael. 2015. True Believers and Traitors: Who Leaves Insurgent Groups and Why. Journal of Conflict Resolution 59 (5):794–823.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parkinson, Sarah Elizabeth. 2013. Organizing Rebellion: Rethinking High-Risk Mobilization and Social Networks in War. American Political Science Review 107 (3):418–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearlman, Wendy, and Cunningham, Kathleen Gallagher. 2012. Nonstate Actors, Fragmentation, and Conflict Processes. Journal of Conflict Resolution 56 (1):3–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pettersson, Therese. 2015. UCDP Actor Dataset Version 2.2. Technical report. Uppsala Conflict Data Program.Google Scholar
Pettersson, Therese, and Eck, Kristine. 2018. Organized Violence, 1989–2017. Journal of Peace Research 55 (4):535–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phillips, Brian J. 2015. Enemies with Benefits? Violent Rivalry and Terrorist Group Longevity. Journal of Peace Research 52 (1):62–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polletta, Francesca, and Jasper, James M.. 2001. Collective Identity and Social Movements. Annual Review of Sociology 27 (1):283–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reno, William. 2011. Warfare in Independent Africa. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rudloff, Peter, and Findley, Michael G.. 2016. The Downstream Effects of Combatant Fragmentation on Civil War Recurrence. Journal of Peace Research 53 (1):19–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanders, Andrew. 2012. Inside the IRA: Dissident Republicans and the War for Legitimacy. Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Schubiger, Livia Isabella. 2013. Repression and Mobilization in Civil War: The Consequences of State Violence for Wartime Collective Action. PhD diss., University of Zurich.Google Scholar
Schubiger, Livia Isabella, and Zelina, Matthew. 2017. Ideology in Armed Groups. PS: Political Science and Politics 50 (4):948–52.Google Scholar
Seymour, Lee J.M. 2014. Why Factions Switch Sides in Civil Wars: Rivalry, Patronage, and Realignment in Sudan. International Security 39 (2):92–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seymour, Lee J.M., Bakke, Kristin M., and Cunningham, Kathleen Gallagher. 2016. E Pluribus Unum, Ex Uno Plures: Competition, Violence, and Fragmentation in Ethnopolitical Movements. Journal of Peace Research 53 (1):3–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shapiro, Jacob N. 2013. The Terrorist's Dilemma: Managing Violent Covert Organizations. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Shils, Edward A., and Janowitz, Morris. 1948. Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht in World War II. Public Opinion Quarterly 12 (2):280–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siebold, Guy. 2007. The Essence of Military Group Cohesion. Armed Forces & Society 33 (2):286–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siebold, Guy. 2011. Key Questions and Challenges to the Standard Model of Military Group Cohesion. Armed Forces and Society 37 (3):448–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sigman, Rachel, and Lindberg, Staffan I.. 2017. Neopatrimonialism and Democracy: An Empirical Investigation of Africa's Political Regimes. Working paper series 2017: 56, Varieties of Democracy Institute.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Staniland, Paul. 2010. Explaining Cohesion, Fragmentation, and Control in Insurgent Groups. PhD diss., Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Google Scholar
Staniland, Paul. 2014. Networks of Rebellion: Explaining Insurgent Cohesion and Collapse. Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Stedman, Stephen John. 1997. Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes. International Security 22 (2):5–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steele, Abbey. 2009. Seeking Safety: Avoiding Displacement and Choosing Destinations in Civil Wars. Journal of Peace Research 46 (3):419–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Straus, Scott. 2015. Making and Unmaking Nations: War, Leadership, and Genocide in Modern Africa. Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Syrian Network for Human Rights. 2015. The Main Conflict Parties Who Are Killing Civilians in Syria. Civilian's Death Toll up to the End of October 2015. <https://snhr.org/wp-content/pdf/english/Who_Are_Killing_Civilians_in_Syria_en.pdf>..' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Syrian+Network+for+Human+Rights.+2015.+The+Main+Conflict+Parties+Who+Are+Killing+Civilians+in+Syria.+Civilian's+Death+Toll+up+to+the+End+of+October+2015.+.>Google Scholar
Tamm, Henning. 2016. Rebel Leaders, Internal Rivals, and External Resources: How State Sponsors Affect Insurgent Cohesion. International Studies Quarterly 60 (4):599–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toft, Monic Duffy, and Zhukov, Yuri M.. 2015. Islamists and Nationalists: Rebel Motivation and Counterinsurgency in Russia's North Caucasus. American Political Science Review 109 (2):222–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ulfelder, Jay, and Valentino, Benjamin. 2008. Assessing Risks of State-Sponsored Mass Killing. SSRN. Available at <https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1703426>.CrossRef.>Google Scholar
UN Human Rights Council. 2018. Report of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar. A/HRC/39/64, 27 August 2018.Google Scholar
United Nations. 2018. Statement by Adama Dieng, United Nations Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, on the situation in Idlib, Syrian Arab Republic, United Nations Press Release, New York, 6 September 2018.Google Scholar
Uzonyi, Gary, and Hanania, Richard. 2017. Government-Sponsored Mass Killing and Civil War Reoccurrence. International Studies Quarterly 61 (3):677–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valentino, Benjamin A., Huth, Paul, and Balch-Lindsay, Dylan. 2004. Draining the Sea: Mass Killing and Guerrilla Warfare. International Organization 58 (2):375–407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
VDEM. 2018. Varieties of Democracy, Codebook V8. V-Dem Institute, University of Gothenburg.Google Scholar
Viterna, Jocelyn S. 2006. Pulled, Pushed, and Persuaded: Explaining Women's Mobilization into the Salvadoran Guerilla Army. American Journal of Sociology 112 (1):1–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vogt, Manuel, Bormann, Nils-Christian, Rueegger, Seraina, Cederman, Lars-Erik, Hunziker, Philipp, and Girardin, Luc. 2015. Integrating Data on Ethnicity, Geography, and Conflict: The Ethnic Power Relations Data Set Family. Journal of Conflict Resolution 59 (7):1327–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ward, Michael D., and Ahlquist, John S.. 2018. Maximum Likelihood for Social Science: Strategies for Analysis. Analytical Methods for Social Research. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weinstein, Jeremy M. 2007. Inside Rebellion: The Politics of Insurgent Violence. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Woldemariam, Michael. 2011. Why Rebels Collide: Factionalism and Fragmentation in African Insurgencies. PhD diss., Princeton University.Google Scholar
Woldemariam, Michael. 2014. Battlefield Outcomes and Rebel Cohesion: Lessons from the Eritrean Independence War. Terrorism and Political Violence 28 (1):135–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, Elisabeth Jean. 2003. Insurgent Collective Action and Civil War in El Salvador. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, Elisabeth Jean. 2008. The Social Processes of Civil War: The Wartime Transformation of Social Networks. Annual Review of Political Science 11:539–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, Elisabeth Jean. 2009. Armed Groups and Sexual Violence: When Is Wartime Rape Rare? Politics and Society 37 (1):131–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, Elisabeth Jean. 2010. Sexual Violence During War: Variation and Accountability. In Collective Violence and International Criminal Justice: An Interdisciplinary Approach, edited by Smeulers, Alette, 297–324. Intersentia.Google Scholar
Wood, Elisabeth Jean. 2012. Rape During War Is Not Inevitable: Variation in Wartime Sexual Violence. In Understanding and Proving International Sex Crimes, edited by Bergsmo, Morten, Skre, Alf B., and Wood, Elisabeth Jean, 389–419. Torkel Opsahl Academic.Google Scholar
Wood, Elisabeth Jean, and Toppelberg, Nathaniel. 2017. The Persistence of Sexual Assault Within the US Military. Journal of Peace Research 54 (5):620–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wucherpfennig, J., Metternich, Nils, Cederman, Lars-Erik, and Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede. 2012. Ethnicity, the State and the Duration of Civil War. World Politics 64 (1):79–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wucherpfennig, Julian. 2011. Fighting for Change: Onset, Duration, and Recurrence of Ethnic Conflict. PhD diss., ETH Zurich.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Schubiger supplementary material

Appendix

Download Schubiger supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 172.1 KB
Supplementary material: Link

Schubiger Dataset

Dataset

https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/BFG5FD
Link