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The Place of the “Cooperative” in the Agrarian History of India, c. 1900–1970

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 August 2019

Nikolay Kamenov Open the ORCID record for Nikolay Kamenov [Opens in a new window]
Nikolay Kamenov*
Affiliation:
Nikolay Kamenov (nkamenov@gmail.com) holds a doctorate in global history from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology.
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Abstract

Cooperatives are a promising link that can coalesce subdisciplines such as agrarian, labor, economic, and social history. This article reassesses the significance of cooperatives in the agrarian and social history of South Asia. It provides a broad sketch of the major historical developments—legal, economic, and social—in India up to 1970, emphasizing the continuity between the colonial and postcolonial periods in terms of state engagement with cooperatives. The article goes on to discuss the existing historiography regarding the cooperative movement on the subcontinent, arguing for the substitution of the prevailing notion of failure with a more historically grounded and nuanced approach that takes into consideration the broader economic context, as well as social stratification and inequality. Finally, some promising avenues—including, but not limited to, organizational economics, bottom-up social and cultural history, and global history—are suggested for the future historiography of cooperatives in South Asia.

Keywords

agrarianbankcapitalcolonialcooperativecrediteconomicsfinanceIndiaSouth Asia
Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 79 , Issue 1 , February 2020 , pp. 103 - 128
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 2019

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References

List of References

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British Library, India Office Records and Private Papers. 1915. Committee on Co-operation. Report of the Committee on Co-operation in India. Maclagan Committee Report. V/26/340/2.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records and Private Papers. 1921. F. R. Hemingway. The Co-operative Manual. Coop manual by Hemingway, F. R., I.C.S. and Registrar of Co-operative Societies, Madras Presidency. With a preface by H. E. Lord Willindon. V/27/340/26.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records and Private Papers. 1927–28. Committee on Co-operation in Madras. Report of the Committee. Government of Madras: Development Department. V/26/340/7.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records and Private Papers. 1928. Committee on Co-operative Societies in the Central Provinces, 1922. Report of the Committee. Nagpur: Government Press. V/26/340/6.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records and Private Papers. 1940. Thirteenth Conference of Registrars of Co-operative Societies in India Held in Delhi from the 11th to the 13th of December 1939. Notes on the Provisional Agenda and the Statement Showing the Action Taken on the Resolutions Passed at the 12th Conference. New Delhi: Government of India Press. V/25/340/3.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records and Private Papers. 1946. Saraiya Committee. Report of the Co-operative Planning Committee Appointed by the Government of India on the Recommendation of the Fourteenth Registrars' Conference. Commissioned by the Government of India, Department of Education, Health and Lands, 18th of January 1945. V/26/340/3.Google Scholar
National Archives, New Delhi. 1901. Legislative Department. Co-operative Credit Societies Reservation Bank. Establishment of Agricultural Banks in India.Google Scholar
Agrawal, Babita. 2012. Co-operatives in India: History, Problems and Reforms. New Delhi: New Century Publications.Google Scholar
Ali, Agha Iqbal, and Bhargava, Mukesh. 1998. “Marketing Capability and Performance of Dairy Cooperatives in India.” INFOR: Information Systems and Operational Research 36(3):129–41.Google Scholar
All-India Rural Credit Survey Committee (1951). 1954. Report. Bombay: Reserve Bank of India.Google Scholar
Attwood, Donald W. 1992. Raising Cane: The Political Economy of Sugar in Western India. Boulder, Colo.: Westview.Google Scholar
Baker, Christopher John. 1984. An Indian Rural Economy, 1880–1955: The Tamilnad Countryside. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Balachandran, G. 1996. John Bullion's Empire: Britain's Gold Problem and India between the Wars. Richmond, UK: Curzon.Google Scholar
Balachandran, G. 2003. “The Interwar Slump in India.” In The World Economy and National Economies in the Interwar Slump, ed. Balderston, Theo, 143–71. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banaji, Jairus. 1977. “Capitalist Domination and the Small Peasantry: Deccan Districts in the Late Nineteenth Century.” Economic and Political Weekly 12(33):1375–1404.Google Scholar
Basu, Pratyusha. 2009. Villages, Women, and the Success of Dairy Cooperatives in India: Making Place for Rural Development. Amherst, N.Y.: Cambria Press.Google Scholar
Basu, Pratyusha, and Chakraborty, Jayajit. 2008. “Land, Labor, and Rural Development: Analyzing Participation in India's Village Dairy Cooperatives.” Professional Geographer 60(3):299–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baviskar, Amita, and Sundar, Nandini. 2008. “Democracy versus Economic Transformation?” Economic and Political Weekly 43(46):87–89.Google Scholar
Baviskar, B. S. 1968. “Co-operatives and Politics.” Economic and Political Weekly 3(12):490–95.Google Scholar
Bhattacharya, Neeladri. 1994. “Lenders and Debtors: Punjab Countryside, 1880–1940.” In Credit, Markets, and the Agrarian Economy of Colonial India, ed. Bose, Sugata, 197–247. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bhattacharya, Sabyasachi. 1965. “Laissez Faire in India.” Indian Economic and Social History Review 2(1):1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birchall, Johnston. 1997. The International Co-operative Movement. Manchester: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Birthal, Pratap Singh, Jha, Awadhesh K., and Singh, Harvinder. 2007. “Linking Farmers to Markets for High-Value Agricultural Commodities.” Agricultural Economics Research Review 20:425–39.Google Scholar
Bombay Co-operative Quarterly. 1920–23. Volumes IV–VII. Bombay: Bombay Central Co-operative Institute.Google Scholar
Bose, Sugata, ed. 1994. Credit, Markets, and the Agrarian Economy of Colonial India. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bosma, Ulbe. 2013. The Sugar Plantation in India and Indonesia: Industrial Production, 1770–2010. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caprio, Gerard Jr., and Vittas, Dimitri. 1997. Reforming Financial Systems: Historical Implications for Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511664830CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Catanach, I. J. 1970. Rural Credit in Western India, 1875–1930: Rural Credit and the Co-operative Movement in the Bombay Presidency. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Census of India, 1931. 1933. Vol. I—India. Part I—Report. Delhi: Manager of Publications.Google Scholar
Chandavarkar, A. G. 1983. “Money and Credit, 1858–1947.” In The Cambridge Economic History of India Vol. 2, 1757–1970, ed. Kumar, Dharma, 762–803. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Charlesworth, Neil. 1985. Peasants and Imperial Rule: Agriculture and Agrarian Society in the Bombay Presidency, 1850–1935. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterjee, Partha. 2000. “Two Poets and Death: On Civil and Political Society in the Non-Christian World.” In Questions of Modernity, ed. Mitchell, Timothy, 35–48. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Chatterjee, Partha. 2004. The Politics of the Governed: Reflections on Popular Politics in Most of the World. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Chaturvedi, Vinayak. 2007. Peasant Pasts: History and Memory in Western India. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Chithelen, Ignatius. 1980–81. “Sugar Cooperatives in Maharashtra.” Social Scientist 9(5/6):55–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chithelen, Ignatius. 1985. “Origins of Co-operative Sugar Industry in Maharashtra.” Economic and Political Weekly 20(14):604–12.Google Scholar
Darling, Malcolm. 1928. The Punjab Peasant in Prosperity and Debt. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Darling, Malcolm. 1943. “The Indian Village and Democracy.” Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 91(4645):486–97.Google Scholar
Desai, A. R. 1961. Rural Sociology in India. 3rd ed. Bombay: Indian Society of Agricultural Economics.Google Scholar
Dubhashi, P. R. 1970. Principles and Philosophy of Co-operation. Poona: Vaikunth Mehta National Institute of Co-operative Management.Google Scholar
Dwivedi, R. C., ed. 2005. Hundred Years of Cooperative Movement in India, Volume 1: Pre-Independence Period (1904–1947). New Delhi: Paramount Publishing House.Google Scholar
Foucault, Michel. 1977. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Framke, Maria. 2013. Delhi - Rom - Berlin: Die indische wahrnehmung von faschismus und nationalsozialismus, 1922–1939 [Delhi-Rome-Berlin: The Indian perception of fascism and nationalism, 1922–1939]. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche buchgesellschaft.Google Scholar
Gilbert, Jess. 2015. Planning Democracy: Agrarian Intellectuals and the Intended New Deal. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goswami, Omkar. 1984. “Agriculture in Slump: The Peasant Economy of East and North Bengal in the 1930s.” Indian Economic & Social History Review 21(3):335–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hardiman, David. 1981. Peasant Nationalists of Gujarat: Kheda District, 1917–1934. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hardiman, David. 1987. “The Bhils and Shahukars of Eastern Gujarat.” In Subaltern Studies: Writings on South Asian History and Society, ed. Guha, Ranajit, 1–54. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hardiman, David. 1996. Feeding the Baniya: Peasants and Usurers in Western India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Indian Famine Commission. 1901. Report. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government.Google Scholar
Iqbal, Farrukh. 1988. “The Determinants of Moneylender Interest Rates: Evidence from Rural India.” Journal of Development Studies 24(3):364–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iqbal, Iftekhar. 2017. “Cooperative Credit in Colonial Bengal: An Exploration in Development and Decline, 1905–1947.” Indian Economic & Social History Review 54(2):221–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Islam, M. Mufakharul. 1978. Bengal Agriculture, 1920–1946: A Quantitative Study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jakhar, Bal Ram, and Dwivedi, R. C., eds. 2012. Cooperative Development in Independent India (December 1947 – May 2012). New Delhi: Center for Promotion of Cooperativism.Google Scholar
Kamenov, Nikolay. 2019. “Imperial Cooperative Experiments and Global Market Capitalism, c.1900–c.1960.” Journal of Global History 14(2):219–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacPherson, Ian. 2004. “Globalisation in Another Time: The Impact of Early Indian Co-operative Legislation on North America.” In 100 Years Co-operative Credit Societies Act, India 1904: A Worldwide Applied Model of Co-operative Legislation, Proceedings of a Colloquium in Marburg, 10–12 September, ed. Hans-Hermann Münkner, 76–94. New Delhi: International Cooperative Alliance Asia and Pacific.Google Scholar
Madan, Gurmukh Ram. 2007. Co-operative Movement in India: A Critical Appraisal. New Delhi: Mittal Publications.Google Scholar
Manikumar, K. A. 2003. A Colonial Economy in the Great Depression: Madras (1929–1937). Chennai: Orient Longman.Google Scholar
Mathur, B. S. 1971. Co-operation in India: A Critical Analysis of the Co-operative Movement in India's Planned Economy. Agra: Sahitya bhawan.Google Scholar
Mohapatra, Prabhu Prasad. 1990. “Land and Credit Market in Chotanagpur, 1880–1950.” Studies in History 6(2):163–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicholson, Frederick Augustus. 1895. Report Regarding the Possibility of Introducing Land and Agricultural Banks into the Madras Presidency, Vol. I. Madras: Superintendent of the Government Press.Google Scholar
Nicholson, Frederick Augustus. 1897. Report Regarding the Possibility of Introducing Land and Agricultural Banks into the Madras Presidency, Vol. II. Madras: Superintendent of the Government Press.Google Scholar
Patel, Kiran. 2016. The New Deal: A Global History. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
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Randeria, Shalini. 2002. “Entangled Histories of Uneven Modernities: Civil Society, Caste Solidarities and Legal Pluralism in Post-colonial India.” In Unraveling Ties: From Social Cohesion to New Practices of Connectedness, eds. Elkana, Yehuda, Krastev, Ivan, Randeria, Shalini, and Macamo, Elisio, 284–311. Frankfurt: Campus verlag.Google Scholar
Reserve Bank of India. 1958. Review of the Co-operative Movement in India, 1954–6. Bombay: Examiner Press.Google Scholar
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Rhodes, Rita. 1995. The International Co-operative Alliance during War and Peace, 1910–1950. Geneva: International Co-operative Alliance Publications.Google Scholar
Rhodes, Rita. 2012. Empire and Co-operation: How the British Empire Used Co-operatives in Its Development Strategies, 1900–1970. Edinburgh: John Donald.Google Scholar
Robb, Peter. 1988. “Bihar, the Colonial State and Agricultural Development in India, 1880–1920.” Indian Economic & Social History Review 25(2):205–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robert, Bruce L. Jr. 1979. “Agricultural Credit Cooperatives in Madras, 1893–1937: Rural Development and Agrarian Politics in Pre-independence India.” Indian Economic & Social History Review 16(2):163–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rothermund, Dietmar. 1992. India in the Great Depression, 1929–1939. New Delhi: Manohar Publications.Google Scholar
Royal Commission on Agriculture in India. 1927. Evidence Taken in the Bombay Presidency, Volume II, Part I. Calcutta: Government of India Central Publication Branch.Google Scholar
Royal Commission on Agriculture in India. 1928a. Abridged Report. Bombay: Government Central Press.Google Scholar
Royal Commission on Agriculture in India. 1928b. Report. Bombay: Government Central Press.Google Scholar
Satyanarayana, N., Hasan, Badrul, and Singh, Tejpal, eds. 2018. Indian Cooperative Movement: A Statistical Profile. 15th ed.New Delhi: National Cooperative Union of India. https://ncui.coop/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Statistical_Profile_2018.pdf (accessed July 14, 2019).Google Scholar
Scholten, Bruce A. 2010. India's White Revolution: Operation Flood, Food Aid and Development. London: I.B. Tauris.Google Scholar
Stokes, Eric. 1978. The Peasant and the Raj: Studies in Agrarian Society and Peasant Rebellion in Colonial India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strickland, Claude F. 1933. Co-operation for Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sundar, Aparna, and Sundar, Nandini. 2014. “The Habits of the Political Heart: Recovering Politics from Governmentality.” In Re-framing Democracy and Agency in India: Interrogating Political Society, ed. Gudavarthy, Ajay, 269–88. London: Anthem Press.Google Scholar
Talbot, Ian. 1996. Khizr Tiwana, the Punjab Unionist Party and the Partition of India. Richmond: Curzon.Google Scholar
Thorner, Daniel. 1962. “Context for Cooperatives in Rural India.” Economic Weekly 14(4–6):251–66.Google Scholar
Thorner, Daniel. 1964. Agricultural Cooperatives in India: A Field Report. London: Asia Publishing House.Google Scholar
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Archives at the Centre of South Asian Studies, Cambridge. n.d. Gill papers. Boxes 1 and 2, Volume I.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records and Private Papers. 1915. Committee on Co-operation. Report of the Committee on Co-operation in India. Maclagan Committee Report. V/26/340/2.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records and Private Papers. 1921. F. R. Hemingway. The Co-operative Manual. Coop manual by Hemingway, F. R., I.C.S. and Registrar of Co-operative Societies, Madras Presidency. With a preface by H. E. Lord Willindon. V/27/340/26.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records and Private Papers. 1927–28. Committee on Co-operation in Madras. Report of the Committee. Government of Madras: Development Department. V/26/340/7.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records and Private Papers. 1928. Committee on Co-operative Societies in the Central Provinces, 1922. Report of the Committee. Nagpur: Government Press. V/26/340/6.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records and Private Papers. 1940. Thirteenth Conference of Registrars of Co-operative Societies in India Held in Delhi from the 11th to the 13th of December 1939. Notes on the Provisional Agenda and the Statement Showing the Action Taken on the Resolutions Passed at the 12th Conference. New Delhi: Government of India Press. V/25/340/3.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records and Private Papers. 1946. Saraiya Committee. Report of the Co-operative Planning Committee Appointed by the Government of India on the Recommendation of the Fourteenth Registrars' Conference. Commissioned by the Government of India, Department of Education, Health and Lands, 18th of January 1945. V/26/340/3.Google Scholar
National Archives, New Delhi. 1901. Legislative Department. Co-operative Credit Societies Reservation Bank. Establishment of Agricultural Banks in India.Google Scholar
Agrawal, Babita. 2012. Co-operatives in India: History, Problems and Reforms. New Delhi: New Century Publications.Google Scholar
Ali, Agha Iqbal, and Bhargava, Mukesh. 1998. “Marketing Capability and Performance of Dairy Cooperatives in India.” INFOR: Information Systems and Operational Research 36(3):129–41.Google Scholar
All-India Rural Credit Survey Committee (1951). 1954. Report. Bombay: Reserve Bank of India.Google Scholar
Attwood, Donald W. 1992. Raising Cane: The Political Economy of Sugar in Western India. Boulder, Colo.: Westview.Google Scholar
Baker, Christopher John. 1984. An Indian Rural Economy, 1880–1955: The Tamilnad Countryside. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Balachandran, G. 1996. John Bullion's Empire: Britain's Gold Problem and India between the Wars. Richmond, UK: Curzon.Google Scholar
Balachandran, G. 2003. “The Interwar Slump in India.” In The World Economy and National Economies in the Interwar Slump, ed. Balderston, Theo, 143–71. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banaji, Jairus. 1977. “Capitalist Domination and the Small Peasantry: Deccan Districts in the Late Nineteenth Century.” Economic and Political Weekly 12(33):1375–1404.Google Scholar
Basu, Pratyusha. 2009. Villages, Women, and the Success of Dairy Cooperatives in India: Making Place for Rural Development. Amherst, N.Y.: Cambria Press.Google Scholar
Basu, Pratyusha, and Chakraborty, Jayajit. 2008. “Land, Labor, and Rural Development: Analyzing Participation in India's Village Dairy Cooperatives.” Professional Geographer 60(3):299–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baviskar, Amita, and Sundar, Nandini. 2008. “Democracy versus Economic Transformation?” Economic and Political Weekly 43(46):87–89.Google Scholar
Baviskar, B. S. 1968. “Co-operatives and Politics.” Economic and Political Weekly 3(12):490–95.Google Scholar
Bhattacharya, Neeladri. 1994. “Lenders and Debtors: Punjab Countryside, 1880–1940.” In Credit, Markets, and the Agrarian Economy of Colonial India, ed. Bose, Sugata, 197–247. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bhattacharya, Sabyasachi. 1965. “Laissez Faire in India.” Indian Economic and Social History Review 2(1):1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birchall, Johnston. 1997. The International Co-operative Movement. Manchester: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Birthal, Pratap Singh, Jha, Awadhesh K., and Singh, Harvinder. 2007. “Linking Farmers to Markets for High-Value Agricultural Commodities.” Agricultural Economics Research Review 20:425–39.Google Scholar
Bombay Co-operative Quarterly. 1920–23. Volumes IV–VII. Bombay: Bombay Central Co-operative Institute.Google Scholar
Bose, Sugata, ed. 1994. Credit, Markets, and the Agrarian Economy of Colonial India. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bosma, Ulbe. 2013. The Sugar Plantation in India and Indonesia: Industrial Production, 1770–2010. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caprio, Gerard Jr., and Vittas, Dimitri. 1997. Reforming Financial Systems: Historical Implications for Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511664830CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Catanach, I. J. 1970. Rural Credit in Western India, 1875–1930: Rural Credit and the Co-operative Movement in the Bombay Presidency. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Census of India, 1931. 1933. Vol. I—India. Part I—Report. Delhi: Manager of Publications.Google Scholar
Chandavarkar, A. G. 1983. “Money and Credit, 1858–1947.” In The Cambridge Economic History of India Vol. 2, 1757–1970, ed. Kumar, Dharma, 762–803. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Charlesworth, Neil. 1985. Peasants and Imperial Rule: Agriculture and Agrarian Society in the Bombay Presidency, 1850–1935. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterjee, Partha. 2000. “Two Poets and Death: On Civil and Political Society in the Non-Christian World.” In Questions of Modernity, ed. Mitchell, Timothy, 35–48. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Chatterjee, Partha. 2004. The Politics of the Governed: Reflections on Popular Politics in Most of the World. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Chaturvedi, Vinayak. 2007. Peasant Pasts: History and Memory in Western India. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Chithelen, Ignatius. 1980–81. “Sugar Cooperatives in Maharashtra.” Social Scientist 9(5/6):55–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chithelen, Ignatius. 1985. “Origins of Co-operative Sugar Industry in Maharashtra.” Economic and Political Weekly 20(14):604–12.Google Scholar
Darling, Malcolm. 1928. The Punjab Peasant in Prosperity and Debt. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Darling, Malcolm. 1943. “The Indian Village and Democracy.” Journal of the Royal Society of Arts 91(4645):486–97.Google Scholar
Desai, A. R. 1961. Rural Sociology in India. 3rd ed. Bombay: Indian Society of Agricultural Economics.Google Scholar
Dubhashi, P. R. 1970. Principles and Philosophy of Co-operation. Poona: Vaikunth Mehta National Institute of Co-operative Management.Google Scholar
Dwivedi, R. C., ed. 2005. Hundred Years of Cooperative Movement in India, Volume 1: Pre-Independence Period (1904–1947). New Delhi: Paramount Publishing House.Google Scholar
Foucault, Michel. 1977. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Framke, Maria. 2013. Delhi - Rom - Berlin: Die indische wahrnehmung von faschismus und nationalsozialismus, 1922–1939 [Delhi-Rome-Berlin: The Indian perception of fascism and nationalism, 1922–1939]. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche buchgesellschaft.Google Scholar
Gilbert, Jess. 2015. Planning Democracy: Agrarian Intellectuals and the Intended New Deal. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goswami, Omkar. 1984. “Agriculture in Slump: The Peasant Economy of East and North Bengal in the 1930s.” Indian Economic & Social History Review 21(3):335–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hardiman, David. 1981. Peasant Nationalists of Gujarat: Kheda District, 1917–1934. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hardiman, David. 1987. “The Bhils and Shahukars of Eastern Gujarat.” In Subaltern Studies: Writings on South Asian History and Society, ed. Guha, Ranajit, 1–54. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hardiman, David. 1996. Feeding the Baniya: Peasants and Usurers in Western India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Indian Famine Commission. 1901. Report. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government.Google Scholar
Iqbal, Farrukh. 1988. “The Determinants of Moneylender Interest Rates: Evidence from Rural India.” Journal of Development Studies 24(3):364–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iqbal, Iftekhar. 2017. “Cooperative Credit in Colonial Bengal: An Exploration in Development and Decline, 1905–1947.” Indian Economic & Social History Review 54(2):221–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Islam, M. Mufakharul. 1978. Bengal Agriculture, 1920–1946: A Quantitative Study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jakhar, Bal Ram, and Dwivedi, R. C., eds. 2012. Cooperative Development in Independent India (December 1947 – May 2012). New Delhi: Center for Promotion of Cooperativism.Google Scholar
Kamenov, Nikolay. 2019. “Imperial Cooperative Experiments and Global Market Capitalism, c.1900–c.1960.” Journal of Global History 14(2):219–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacPherson, Ian. 2004. “Globalisation in Another Time: The Impact of Early Indian Co-operative Legislation on North America.” In 100 Years Co-operative Credit Societies Act, India 1904: A Worldwide Applied Model of Co-operative Legislation, Proceedings of a Colloquium in Marburg, 10–12 September, ed. Hans-Hermann Münkner, 76–94. New Delhi: International Cooperative Alliance Asia and Pacific.Google Scholar
Madan, Gurmukh Ram. 2007. Co-operative Movement in India: A Critical Appraisal. New Delhi: Mittal Publications.Google Scholar
Manikumar, K. A. 2003. A Colonial Economy in the Great Depression: Madras (1929–1937). Chennai: Orient Longman.Google Scholar
Mathur, B. S. 1971. Co-operation in India: A Critical Analysis of the Co-operative Movement in India's Planned Economy. Agra: Sahitya bhawan.Google Scholar
Mohapatra, Prabhu Prasad. 1990. “Land and Credit Market in Chotanagpur, 1880–1950.” Studies in History 6(2):163–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicholson, Frederick Augustus. 1895. Report Regarding the Possibility of Introducing Land and Agricultural Banks into the Madras Presidency, Vol. I. Madras: Superintendent of the Government Press.Google Scholar
Nicholson, Frederick Augustus. 1897. Report Regarding the Possibility of Introducing Land and Agricultural Banks into the Madras Presidency, Vol. II. Madras: Superintendent of the Government Press.Google Scholar
Patel, Kiran. 2016. The New Deal: A Global History. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Punjab Government. 1905. Annual Report on the Working of Co-operative Credit Societies in the Punjab for the Year Ending 31st March 1905. Lahore: Punjab Government Press.Google Scholar
Randeria, Shalini. 2002. “Entangled Histories of Uneven Modernities: Civil Society, Caste Solidarities and Legal Pluralism in Post-colonial India.” In Unraveling Ties: From Social Cohesion to New Practices of Connectedness, eds. Elkana, Yehuda, Krastev, Ivan, Randeria, Shalini, and Macamo, Elisio, 284–311. Frankfurt: Campus verlag.Google Scholar
Reserve Bank of India. 1958. Review of the Co-operative Movement in India, 1954–6. Bombay: Examiner Press.Google Scholar
Reserve Bank of India. 2006. “History of the Reserve Bank of India.” Press release, March 18. https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PressRelease/PDFs/69367.pdf (accessed June 15, 2019).Google Scholar
Rhodes, Rita. 1995. The International Co-operative Alliance during War and Peace, 1910–1950. Geneva: International Co-operative Alliance Publications.Google Scholar
Rhodes, Rita. 2012. Empire and Co-operation: How the British Empire Used Co-operatives in Its Development Strategies, 1900–1970. Edinburgh: John Donald.Google Scholar
Robb, Peter. 1988. “Bihar, the Colonial State and Agricultural Development in India, 1880–1920.” Indian Economic & Social History Review 25(2):205–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robert, Bruce L. Jr. 1979. “Agricultural Credit Cooperatives in Madras, 1893–1937: Rural Development and Agrarian Politics in Pre-independence India.” Indian Economic & Social History Review 16(2):163–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rothermund, Dietmar. 1992. India in the Great Depression, 1929–1939. New Delhi: Manohar Publications.Google Scholar
Royal Commission on Agriculture in India. 1927. Evidence Taken in the Bombay Presidency, Volume II, Part I. Calcutta: Government of India Central Publication Branch.Google Scholar
Royal Commission on Agriculture in India. 1928a. Abridged Report. Bombay: Government Central Press.Google Scholar
Royal Commission on Agriculture in India. 1928b. Report. Bombay: Government Central Press.Google Scholar
Satyanarayana, N., Hasan, Badrul, and Singh, Tejpal, eds. 2018. Indian Cooperative Movement: A Statistical Profile. 15th ed.New Delhi: National Cooperative Union of India. https://ncui.coop/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Statistical_Profile_2018.pdf (accessed July 14, 2019).Google Scholar
Scholten, Bruce A. 2010. India's White Revolution: Operation Flood, Food Aid and Development. London: I.B. Tauris.Google Scholar
Stokes, Eric. 1978. The Peasant and the Raj: Studies in Agrarian Society and Peasant Rebellion in Colonial India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strickland, Claude F. 1933. Co-operation for Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sundar, Aparna, and Sundar, Nandini. 2014. “The Habits of the Political Heart: Recovering Politics from Governmentality.” In Re-framing Democracy and Agency in India: Interrogating Political Society, ed. Gudavarthy, Ajay, 269–88. London: Anthem Press.Google Scholar
Talbot, Ian. 1996. Khizr Tiwana, the Punjab Unionist Party and the Partition of India. Richmond: Curzon.Google Scholar
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