¹ See, for instance, J. R. Strayer, “The State and Religion: Greece and Rome, the West, Islam,” and Coulborn, R., “The State and Religion: Iran, India and China,” Comparative Studies in Society and History I No. 1 (1958), 38–57Google Scholar; also the discussion of this paper by Nichols, J. H., van Buitenen, J. and Coulborn, R. in “Debate,” Comparative Studies in Society and History I No. 4 (1959), 383–389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

² On the political system of these empires see Eisenstadt, S. N., “Political Struggle in Bureaucratic Societies,” World Politics, IX, (Oct. 1956) 15–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Eisenstadt, S. N., “Internal Contradictions in Bureaucratic Politics,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 1, No. 1, (Oct. 1958), 50–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Eisenstadt, S. N., “Les Causes de la Désintégration et de la Chute des Empires—Analyses Sociologiques et Analyses Historiques,” Diogène 34 (June 1961), 87–112.Google Scholar

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⁴ On Iran see Christensen, L'lran sous les Sassanides and “Sassanid Persia”; Mazdak, O. Klima, Geschichte einer sozialen Bewegung im sassanidischen Persien, (Prague, 1957)Google Scholar; on China, see Nivison and Wright, Confucianism in Action, and Wright, The Confucian Persuasion; E. Balazs, “Le droit chinois.”

⁵ For some general aspects of the analysis of these types of political systems see: S. N. Eisenstadt, “Political Struggles,” “International Contradictions,” “Les Causes de la Désintegration et la Chute des Empires,” and the forthcoming book of the author on the social and political systems of these empires. For descriptions on specific empires, see in addition, on Iran: Christensen, A., “Die Iranier,” in A. Alt et al., Kulturgeschichte des alten Orients, III, (Munchen, 1933)Google Scholar; Delaporte, L. and Huart, C., L'Iran antique, (Paris, 1943)Google Scholar; H. 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⁶ A general survey of some aspects of this problem is given in Schilling, W., Religion und Recht, (Zürich, 1959), esp. Ch. 2.Google Scholar

⁷ On Iran see: de Menasce, R. P., “L'église mazdéenne dans l'Empire sassanide,” Journal of World History II (1955), 554–65Google Scholar; Mole, M., “L'orthodoxie zorastienne,” Annuaire de l'institut de philologie et d'histoire orientale et slave XII, 1953Google Scholar. On Byzance see: E. Barker, Social and Political Thought in Byzantium from Justinian 1 to the last Palaeologus; L. Bréhier, Vie et mort de Byzance, Les institutions de l'Empire byzantin, and La civilisation byzantine; G. Ostrogorsky, History of the Byzantine State, passim. On China: D. S. Nivison and A. F. Wright, Confucianism in Action; R. Des Rotours, Le traité des examens, and Traité des fonctionnaires et traité de l'armée; Kaltenmark in Aspects de la Chine; Balazs, “Les aspects significatifs de la société chinoise,” op. cit.; Galt, H. S., A History of Chinese Educational Institutions (London, 1951).Google Scholar

⁸ See for instance: Reischauer, E. O., Ennin's Travels in T'ang China, (New York, 1955)Google Scholar; Redfield, R. and Singer, M., “The Cultural Role of Cities,” Economic Development and Cultural Change III, (1954) 53–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁹ For descriptions of the major policies of the rulers in the religious and cultural field see: In Iran: A. Christensen, L'lran sous les Sassanides; F. Altheim, Reich gegen Mitternacht and Gesicht von Abend und Morgen. In the Byzantine Empire: M. Mitard, “Le pouvoir impérial du temps de Léon VI,” in Mélanges; C. Diehl, 1930, Vol. I; Bratianu, G. I., Etudes byzantines d'histoire économique et sociale, (Paris, 1938)Google Scholar; Sinogowitz, B., “Die byzantinische Rechtsgeschichte im Spiegel der Neuerscheinungen,” Saeculum IV, (1953) 313–33Google Scholar, and “Die Begriffe Reich, Macht, und Herrschaft im byzantinischen Kulturberich,” Saeculum IV (1953) 450–5Google Scholar; Baynes, N. H., Byzantine Studies and Other Essays, pp. 47–67Google Scholar; Bréhier, L., Les institutions de l'Empire byzantin, pp. 1–52Google Scholar.; Ensslin, W., “Das Gottesgnadentum des autokratischen Kaisertums der frühbyzantinischen Zeit,” Studi bizantini e noellenici V (1939)Google Scholar; Charanis, P., “Coronation and its Significance in the Later Roman Empire,” Byzantion XV (1940–41) 49–66Google Scholar; Hussey, J. M., Church and Learning in the Byzantine Empire, (London, 1957)Google Scholar; Diehl, C., Les grands problèmes de l'histoire byzantine, (Paris, 1943), Ch. IVGoogle Scholar; Grabar, A., L'empereur dans l'art byzantin, (Paris, 1936)Google Scholar (Review by L. Bréhier in Journal des savants 1937, pp. 62–74). In the Muslim States: B. Lewis, The Arabs in History; Hodgson, M. G. S. in Journal of World History V (1960)Google Scholar; J. Schacht, “The Law” in Grunebaum (ed.) (1955), pp. 65–86. In Europe: Göhring, M., Weg und Sieg der modernen Staatsidee in Frankreich, (Tübingen, 1947)Google Scholar; M. Beloff, The Age of Absolutism. In the Spanish American Empire: L. Hanke, “Theoretical Aspects of the Spanish Discovery,” in the Summary of Theses of Harvard Graduate School, (1936) pp. 195–6; idem. 1937, op. cit.; Parry, J. H.The Spanish Theory of Empire in the 16th Century, (Cambridge, 1940)Google Scholar. In China: H. S. Galt, A History of Chinese Educational Institutions; Goodrich, L. C., The Litreary Inquisition of Ch'ien-Lung, (Baltimore, 1953)Google Scholar. See also on the political role of history writing in China: Balazs, E., “Chinesische Geschichtswerke als Wegweiser zur Praxis der Burokratie,” Saeculum VIII (1957) pp. 210–23Google Scholar; Yang, L. S., “Die Organisation der chinesischen offiziellen Geschichtsschreibung,” Saeculum VIII (1957) 196–209.Google Scholar

¹⁰ The full exposition of this hypothesis will be given in a forthcoming book on the social and political systems of the centralized empires.

¹¹ For the description of the participation of the religious groups in the political struggles in these empires sec: A. Christensen, L'Iran sous les Sassanides, Chs. III, VI, VIII, also “Sassanid Persia,” op. cit.; Mole, “L'orthodoxie zoroastienne,” Massé, La civilisation iranienne; Klima, Geschichte einer sozialen Bewegung im sassanidischen Persien; Bréhier, L., Le schisme oriental du XI^e siècle (Paris, 1899)Google Scholar, and La Querelle des images (Paris, 1904)Google Scholar; Ostrogorsky, G., Studien zur Geschichte des byzantinischen Bilderstreits, (Breslau, 1929)Google Scholar, and “Les débuts de la querelle des images,” in Mélanges, C. Diehl, (Paris, 1930) Vol. 1, 235–55; Dwornik, F., The Photian Schism, (Cambridge, 1948)Google Scholar; Runciman, S., The Eastern Schism, (Oxford, 1955)Google Scholar; Jugie, M., Le schisme byzantin, (Paris, 1941)Google Scholar; Gernet, J., Les aspects économiques du Bouddhisme, (Saigon, 1956)Google Scholar; Wright, A. F., Buddhism in Chinese History, (Stanford, 1959)Google Scholar; E. Pulleyblank, The Rebellion of An Lu-shan; H. S. Galt, History of Chinese Educational Institutions; Wilhelm, H., “The Po-Hsueh Hung-ju Examination of 1679,” JAOS LXXI (1951) 60–66Google Scholar; Reischauer, Ennin's Travels in Tang China; Kracke, E. A. Jr., Civil Service in Early Sung China, (Cambridge, Mass., 1953)Google Scholar; Franke, H., “Das begriffsfeld des Staatlichen im chinesischen Kulturbereich,” Saeculum IV (1953) 231–9Google Scholar; DeBarry, W., “Chinese Despotism and the Confucian Ideal,” in Fairbank, , ed., Chinese Thought and Institutions, pp. 163–204Google Scholar; Nivison and Wright, Confucianism in Action; Hanke, L., The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America (Philadelphia, 1949)Google Scholar, and Bartolomé de Las Casas—Scholar and Propagandist, (Philadelphia, 1952)Google Scholar; S. Zavala, New Viewpoints on Spanish Colonizations; Clark, G., The Seventeenth Century, (Oxford, 1929)Google Scholar, Early Modern Europe, (London, 1957)Google Scholar, and The Later Stuarts, (Oxford, 1955)Google Scholar; Königsberger, H. G., “The Organization of Revolutionary Parties in France and the Netherlands during the 16th Century,” Journal of Modern History XXVII (1955) 335–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Leonard, H. Jedin, and Orccibal, in Relazioni del congresso internazionale di scienze storiche (1955)Google Scholar; J. M. Hussey, Church and Learning; Fuchs, op. cit.

¹² See the bibliography quoted earlier and especially A. Christensen, Klima, R. P. de Manasce, and Mole.

¹³ See previous references on Iran and also Nyberg, H. S., Die Religionen des Alten Iran, (Leipzig, 1938)Google Scholar, and Zachner, K. C., The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroaslrianism (London, 1961)Google Scholar.

¹⁴ See Balzas, E., “Les aspects significatifs de la société chinoise,” and “La pérenneté de la société bureaucratique en Chine,” in the International Symposium on History of Eastern and Western Cultural Contacts (mimeo.) (Tokyo, 1959) pp. 31–9Google Scholar; Nivison, and Wright, , Confucianism in Action, Wright, A. F. ed. The Confusion Persuasion, (Stanford, 1960)Google Scholar, passim, and especially R. Des Rotours, La religion dans la Chine antique.

¹⁵ The different aspects of these political activities are discussed in detail in the literature quoted above, and also especially in C. O. Hucker, Confucianism and the Chinese Censorial System, in Nivison and Wright, Confucianism in Action, pp. 182–208; W. DeBarry, “Chinese Despotism and the Confucian Ideal,” in Fairbank, Chinese Thought and Institutions, pp. 163–204; E. Balazs, “Les aspects significatifs de la société chinoise,” and “Le droit chinois (I et II)”; Nicolas-Vandier, N., “Less échanges entre le Bouddhisme et le Taoisme des Han aux T'ang,” in Aspects de la Chine (1959), pp. 166–71Google Scholar; also “Le Neo-Confucianisme,” Aspects (1959) pp. 175–80; E. Pulleyblank, Rebellion of An Lu-shan; Wright, Buddhism in Chinese History (1959; Maspero; Gernet; Kaltermark; P. Demiéville, “Le Bouddhisme chinois,” Aspects de la Chine, pp. 62–166, and “Le Bouddhisme sous les T'ang,” Aspects 171–5.

¹⁶ See literature on China quoted above.

¹⁷ See Shih, V. Y. C., “Some Chinese Rebel Ideologies,” Toung Pao, (1956) XLIV, 150–227CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Eichhorn, W., “Description of the Rebellion of Sun En and earlier Taoist Rebellions,” Mitteilungen des Institutes für Orientforschungen, (Wien, 1954) IIGoogle Scholar; Eberhard, W., “Wie wurden Dynastien gegründet Ein Problem der chinesischen Geschichte,” Dil ve Tarih-Cograyya Fakultesi Derigesi (Ankara) III, 361–76Google Scholar; Chiang, S. T., The Nien Rebellion (Seattle, 1954)Google Scholar; Muramatsu, Y., “Some Themes in Chinese Rebel Ideologies,” in Wright, The Confucian Persuasion, pp. 241–68Google Scholar; Levy, H. S., “Yellow Turban Religion a Rebellion at the End of Han,” Journal of American Oriental Society LXXVI (1956) 214–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar; E. G. Pulleyblank, Rebellion of An Lu-shan; Des Rotour, R., “Les grands fonctionnaires des provinces en Chine sous la dynastie des T'ang,” Toung Pao, Vol. XXIV (1926) 219–315.Google Scholar

¹⁸ See the literature quoted above, especially J. M. Hussey, Church and Learning and The Byzantine World (1957); E. Barker, Social and Political Thought; Bréhier, L., “Priest and King,” in Mémorial L. Petit, (Bucarest, 1948) pp. 41–5Google Scholar, and “Le recrutement des patriarches de Constantinople pendant la période byzantine,” in Actes du 6^e congrès international d'études byzantines, (Paris, 1948) Vol. 1, 221–7 idem, 1950, op. cit.Google Scholar

¹⁹ See especially Ostrogorsky, G., History of the Byzantine State, (Oxford, 1956)Google Scholar passim; H. Gregoire, “The Byzantine Church.”

²⁰ See Haring, The Spanish Empire in America, Ch. X.

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²² See the literature on Islam cited in notes 3, and 5, and also Levy, R., The Social Structure of Islam, (Cambridge, 1957)Google Scholar; Arnold, T. W., The Caliphate, (Oxford, 1924)Google Scholar; Gabrieli, F., “Studi di storia musulmana,” Rivista storica italiana LXII (1950) 99–110Google Scholar; Rosenthal, E. I. J., Political Thought in Medieval Islam, (Cambridge, 1958)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Samadi, S. B., “Social and Economic Aspects of Life under the Abbasid Hegemony at Baghdad,” Islamic Culture XXIX (1955) 237–45.Google Scholar

²³ See especially Hodgson, M. G. S., “The Order of Assassins,” and “The Unity of Later Islamic History”; Lewis, The Arabs in History, passim.Google Scholar