Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-5g6vh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-25T13:16:16.875Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Thought Reform and the Unreformable: Reeducation Centers and the Rhetoric of Opposition in the Early People's Republic of China

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 October 2013

Aminda M. Smith
Get access

Abstract

This essay explores records from Beijing's efforts to intern and reform the city's “lumpenproletariat” after 1949. Connecting these reports to central government directives about national thought reform policy, I show that reeducators and their superiors discoursed in detail about the existence of resisters, who opposed and defied the government, but whom reformatory staff explicitly labeled as non-enemies. The case of Beijing reformatories suggests that anti-state, but non-counterrevolutionary resistance was an important symbolic and rhetorical category, central to the Chinese Communist Party's articulation of its own purpose. In the context of reeducation, opposition to the party-state constituted evidence of a founding “truth”: feudal, imperialist, and capitalist oppression had so damaged the Chinese nation that only a radical and revolutionary transformation could save it. Over the course of the 1950s, reading and analyzing resistance in this way led policy makers to redefine “The People” as well as the social place of individuals accused of activities like prostitution, begging, and petty crime.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 72 , Issue 4 , November 2013 , pp. 937 - 958
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

List of References

BGA (Beijing shi gongan ju [Beijing public security bureau]). 1949. “Guanyu shourong qigai baogao de yijian” [Opinion on the report on the internment of beggars]. BMA 196-2-191.Google Scholar
BGA (Beijing shi gongan ju [Beijing public security bureau]). 1950. “Cheng” [Petition]. BMA 2-2-43.Google Scholar
BGA (Beijing shi gongan ju [Beijing public security bureau]). 1988. Beijing fengbi jiyuan jishi [A record of the closing of Beijing's brothels]. Beijing: Zhongguo heping chubanshe.Google Scholar
Bianco, Lucien. 1999. “The Weapons of the Weak: A Critical View.” China Perspectives 22:4–16.Google Scholar
BJC (Beijing shi renmin jiancha weiyuanhui [Beijing municipal people's inspection committee]). 1953. “Yijiuwusan nian diyi jidu gongzuo baogao” [1953 first-quarter work report]. BMA 14-2-15.Google Scholar
BJJ (Beijing shi shehui jiuji fenhui [Beijing municipal branch of the social relief committee]). 1953a. “Laodong jiaoyusuo bufen shourongren jingchang dao luan” [A portion of the internees in the labor and education centers regularly make trouble]. BMA 14-2-88.Google Scholar
BJJ (Beijing shi shehui jiuji fenhui [Beijing municipal branch of the social relief committee]). 1953b. “Shengchan jiaoyangyuan 1953 nian dier jidu gongzuo zongjie baogao” [Reeducation and production institutes 1953 second-quarter work summary report]. BMA 14-2-15.Google Scholar
BJJ (Beijing shi shehui jiuji fenhui [Beijing municipal branch of the social relief committee]). 1953c. “Shengchan jiaoyangyuan ge suo shourongren taopao qingkuang ji chuli yijian baogao” [Report on the internee running away situation and opinions for its management in each of the reeducation and production centers]. BMA 14-2-88.Google Scholar
BJJ (Beijing shi shehui jiuji fenhui [Beijing municipal branch of the social relief committee]). 1954a. “1954 nian gongzuo jihua shang bannian juxing qingkuang baogao” [Situation report for the first half of 1954]. BMA 14-2-53.Google Scholar
BJJ (Beijing shi shehui jiuji fenhui [Beijing municipal branch of the social relief committee]). 1954b. “Liang zhou gongzuo baogao” [Two-week work report]. August 2–14. BMA 14-2-48.Google Scholar
BJJ (Beijing shi shehui jiuji fenhui [Beijing municipal branch of the social relief committee]). 1954c. “Mei zhou gongzuo huibao” [Weekly work report]. August 22–29. BMA 14-2-48.Google Scholar
BJJ (Beijing shi shehui jiuji fenhui [Beijing municipal branch of the social relief committee]). 1954d. “Zuzhi youmin canjia laodong shengchan de qingkuang baogao” [Situation report on organizing vagrants to participate in labor and production]. BMA 14-2-48.Google Scholar
BJZ (Beijing shi difang zhi bian zuan wei yuan hui [Beijing municipal committee for the compilation of local annals]). 1999. Beijing zhi, zheng fa zhi, jianyu laojiao zhi [Beijing annals, politics and law volume, prison and reeducation through labor annals]. Beijing: Beijing chubanshe.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1949a. “1949 nian gongzuo zongjie” [1949 work summary]. BMA 2-1-55.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1949b. “Beiping shi shusan renkou gongzuo, chuli jinü gongzuo” [Efforts to disperse population and manage prostitutes]. BMA 196-2-20.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1949c. “Chuli qigai zanxing banfa” [Provisional regulations for the management of beggars]. BMA 196-2-191.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1949d. “Guanyu chuli qigai wenti yu jinü wenti de gongzuo buzhi” [Work plan for the management of the beggar problem and the prostitute problem]. BMA 196-2-191.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1949e. “Shourong qigai gongzuo huibao” [Work report on the internment of beggars]. BMA 196-2-191.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1949f. “Shourong qigai gongzuo zongjie” [Work summary on the internment of beggars]. BMA 196-2-20.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1949g. “Wei Zhongguo jiefangqu jiuji zonghui zhankai quanguo jiuji daibiao huiyi dui benshi cishan jiuji tuanti diaocha cailiao” [Survey data on this city's philanthropic and relief organizations for the national representative meeting convened by the social relief committee of China's liberated areas]. BMA 196-2-237.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1950a. “Baogao” [Report]. BMA 2-2-40.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1950b. “Beijing shi chuli jinü gongzuo zongjie” [Work summary on Beijing's management of prostitutes]. BMA 2-2-40.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1950c. “Guonei gongsili jiuji fuli tuanti” [Domestic public and private relief and welfare organizations]. BMA 196-2-237.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1950d. “Han” [Letter]. BMA 196-2-191.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1950e. “Yijiuwuling nian jiu yue shourong qigai gongzuo zongjie” [September 1950 work summary on the internment of beggars]. BMA 196-2-199.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1951a. “Chuli qigai zanxing banfa” [Provisional regulations for the management of beggars]. BMA 2-3-57.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1951b. “Xunlian youmin qigai gongzuo zongjie” [Work report on training vagrants and beggars]. BMA 196-2-20.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1952. “Beijing shi qigai, yeji, liumang, xiaotou qingkuang baogao” [Situation report on beggars, street prostitutes, hooligans, and petty thieves in Beijing municipality]. BMA 196-2-20.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1953a. “Guanyu jiujifenhui suoshu shourong jiaoyang danwei biaoxian ji huai de shourongren” [Regarding the most badly behaved internees in the Department of Social Relief's internment and reeducation work units]. BMA 14-2-88.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1953b. “Mei zhou gongzuo huibao” [Weekly work report]. BMA 14-2-87.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1954a. “Dui shourong renyuan guanli jiaoyu shixing banfa” [Implementing the regulations for the supervision and education of interned personnel]. BMA 14-1-51.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1954b. “Guanyu linshi shourongsuo shourong chuli qingkuang baogao” [Situation report regarding the management of the temporary internment center]. BMA 14-1-51.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1954c. “Zhengdun shengchan jiaoyang gongzuo zongjie baogao” [Summary work report on the rectification of reeducation and production centers]. BMA 14-1-51.Google Scholar
BMZ (Beijing shi minzheng ju [Beijing municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1956. “Guanyu Beijing shi shehui jiuji fuli gongzuo qingkuang baogao” [Situation report regarding Beijing municipality's social relief and welfare work]. BMA 196-1-88.Google Scholar
BSW (Beijing shi weiyuanhui [Beijing municipal committee]). 1949a. “Guanyu fengbi jiyuan qingkuang jie zhongyang huabeiju de baogao” [Report to the North China central government on the closing of brothels]. BMA 1988.Google Scholar
BSW (Beijing shi weiyuanhui [Beijing municipal committee]). 1949b. “Zhonggong Beiping shiwei guanyu Shourong qigai gongzuo baogao” [Communist Party Beijing municipal committee work report on the internment of beggars]. BMA 1988.Google Scholar
BSW (Beijing shi weiyuanhui [Beijing municipal committee]). 1953. “Shi jiuji fenhui laodong jiaoyu suo bufen shourongren jingchang daoluan” [A portion of internees in the municipal social relief committee's labor education centers regularly make trouble]. BMA 14-2-88.Google Scholar
BSW (Beijing shi weiyuanhui [Beijing municipal committee]). 1958. “Di sanshier ci xingzheng huiyi jilu” [Record of the 32nd administrative meeting]. BMA 2-10-51.Google Scholar
BZF (Beijing shi renmin zhengfu [Beijing municipal government]). 1950a. “Tongzhi” [Notice]. BMA 196-2-191.Google Scholar
BZF (Beijing shi renmin zhengfu [Beijing municipal government]). 1950b. “Zhishi” [Directive]. BMA 2-2-43.Google Scholar
BZF (Beijing shi renmin zhengfu [Beijing municipal government]). 1951. “Beijing shi renmin zhengfu diliushiqi ci xingzheng huiyi jilu” [Record of 67th administrative meeting of the Beijing municipal people's government]. BMA 2-3-57.Google Scholar
Yongshun, Cai. 2000. “Between State and Peasant: Local Cadres and Statistical Reporting in Rural China.” China Quarterly 163:783–805.Google Scholar
Zixi, Cao, ed. 1994. Beijing tongzhi [Comprehensive history of Beijing]. Vol. 10. Beijing: Zhongguo shudian.Google Scholar
Chen, Janet. 2011. Guilty of Indigence: The Urban Poor in China 1900-1953. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Qiyuan, Chen. 1951. “Report on social relief and welfare in the cities” [Chengshi jiuji fuli gongzuo baogao]. BMA 2-3-79.Google Scholar
Cohen, Paul A. 2003. “Reflections on a Watershed Date: the 1949 Divide in Chinese History.” In Twentieth-Century China: New Approaches, ed. Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N., 27–36. New York: Routledge.10.4324/9780203455531_chapter_2Google Scholar
CQ (Chongqing shi shehui jiuji fenhui [Municipal social relief committee]). 1953. “Guanyu zuzhi shourong jiaoyang renyuan laodong shengchan gongzuo baogao” [Work report on organizing internment and reeducation personnel to engage in labor and production]. BMA 196-2-24.Google Scholar
Diamant, Neil. 2009. Embattled Glory: Veterans, Military Families, and the Politics of Patriotism in China, 1949–2007. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Dikötter, Frank. 1997. “Crime and Punishment in Post-Liberation China: The Prisoners of a Beijing Gaol in the 1950s.” China Quarterly 149:147–59.10.1017/S0305741000043678Google Scholar
Dong, Ruiqin. 1951. “Baogao” [Report]. June 7. BMA 2-3-57.Google Scholar
Dutton, Michael. 1992. Policing and Punishment in China: From Patriarchy to “The People.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dutton, Michael. 2005. Policing Chinese Politics: A History. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
DZG (Dangdai Zhongguo cong shu bianji bu [Office for the compilation of the contemporary China series]). 1994. Dangdai Zhongguo minzheng [Civil affairs in contemporary China]. Beijing: Dangdai Zhongguo chubanshe.Google Scholar
Friedman, Edward, Pickowicz, Paul G., and Selden, Mark. 2005. Revolution, Resistance, and Reform in Village China. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Hualing, Fu. 2005. “Re-education through Labor in Historical Context.” China Quarterly 184: 811–30.10.1017/S0305741005000512Google Scholar
Gao, James Z. 2004. The Communist Takeover of Hangzhou: The Transformation of City and Cadre, 1949-1954. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.Google Scholar
Guha, Ranajit. 1988. “The Prose of Counter-Insurgency.” In Selected Subaltern Studies, eds. Guha, Ranajit and Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty, 45–86. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
GWY (Guo wu yuan [State council]). 1957. “Decision of the State Council of the People's Republic of China Relating to the Problems of Reeducation Through Labor.” In Zhonghua renmin gongheguo fagui huibian [The laws and regulations of the People's Republic of China], 6:243–44. Beijing: Falu chubanshe.Google Scholar
Haynes, Douglas, and Prakash, Gyan. 1991. Contesting Power: Resistance and Everyday Social Relations in South Asia. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Henriot, Christian. 1995. “‘La Fermeture’: The Abolition of Prostitution in Shanghai, 1949–58.” China Quarterly 142:148–67.10.1017/S0305741000035013Google Scholar
Hershatter, Gail. 1993. “The Subaltern Talks Back: Reflections on Subaltern Theory and Chinese History.” Positions 1:107–8.10.1215/10679847-1-1-103Google Scholar
Hershatter, Gail. 1997. Dangerous Pleasures: Prostitution and Modernity in Twentieth-Century Shanghai. Berkeley: University of California Press.10.1525/9780520917552Google Scholar
Hershatter, Gail. 2002. “The Gender of Memory: Rural Chinese Women and the 1950s.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 28(1):43–70.10.1086/340906Google Scholar
HMZ (Huabei minzhengbu [North China ministry of civil affairs]). 1949. “Guoji jiuji weiyuanhui de wenshu cailiao” [International relief committee documents]. BMA 196-2-250.Google Scholar
Hongshan, Huang and Weiping, Wang. 2010. “Cong ‘jiaoyang jianshi’ dao ‘laodong jioayang’: Zhongguo laodong jiaoyang zhidu qiyuan xintan” [From ‘reeducation’ to ‘reeducation through labor: The origins of China’s system of reeducation through labor]. Hebei xuekan 5:73–80.Google Scholar
Zhengguo, Kang. 2005. Confessions: An Innocent Life in Communist China. Translated by Wilf, Susan. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Jinlong, Li, ed. 2000. Bada hutong [Eight big hutong]. Zhengzhou: Zhong yuan nongmin chubanshe.Google Scholar
Peiyi, Li. 1987. “Huainian Kaifeng de shengchang jiaoyang yuan” [Remembering Kaifeng's reeducation and production center]. In Henan wenshi ziliao [Henan historical literature], 24:187–89. Zhengzhou.Google Scholar
Runshan, Li. 1995. “Beijing shourong yeji anchang” [Beijing interns underground and street prostitutes]. Renmin gongan 3:29–30.Google Scholar
Xiaowei, Li. 2007. “Xin Zhongguo chengli chuqi Beijing qigai de jiuji yu zhili” [Control and aid of Beijing's beggars during the early-PRC period]. Beijing shehui kexue 5:61–67.Google Scholar
Ke, Liang. 1999. “1949 Beijing gaizao jinü jishi” [A record of Beijing's 1949 reform of prostitutes]. Zhongguo shehui daokan 10:8–11.Google Scholar
Shengping, Liao. 2009a. “Beiping jiefang chuqi dui qigai de shourong he gaizao” [The internment and reform of beggars in Beijing during the period of liberation]. Beijing renmin jingcha xueyuan xuebao 5:27–33.Google Scholar
Shengping, Liao. 2009b. “Xin Zhongguo jinli chuqi Beijing jiejue changji wenti shulun” [Solving the prostitution problem in the early period after the establishment of New China]. Zhonggong Guilin shiwei dangxiao xuebao 9:4.Google Scholar
Zongren, Liu. 1995. Hard Time: Thirty Months in a Chinese Labor Camp. San Francisco: China Books and Periodicals.Google Scholar
Weigang, Ma. 1993. Jin chang jin du [Banning prostitution and drugs]. Beijing: Jingguan jiaoyu chubanshe.Google Scholar
Macfaquhar, Roderick, and Schoenhals, Michael. 2006. Mao's Last Revolution. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Zedong, Mao. 1928. “Jingganshan qianwei dui zhongyang de baogao” [Report of the Jinggangshan Front Committee to the Party Central Committee]. In Mao Zedong ji [The works of Mao Zedong], ed. Minoru, Takeuchi, 2:37. Tokyo: Sososha.Google Scholar
Zedong, Mao. 1939. “Zhongguo geming he Zhongguo gongchandang” [The Chinese revolution and the Chinese Communist Party]. In Mao Zedong ji [The works of Mao Zedong], ed. Minoru, Takeuchi, 2:25–66. Tokyo: Sososha.Google Scholar
Zedong, Mao. 1957a. “Datui zichan jieji youpai de jingong” [Beat back the attacks of the bourgeois rightists]. In Mao Zedong xuanji [The selected works of Mao Zedong], 5:469–70. Beijing: Renmin chubanshe.Google Scholar
Zedong, Mao. 1957b. “Guanyu zhengque chuli renmin neibu maodun de wenti, jianghua gao” [On the correct handling of contradictions among the people, speech notes]. In Mao zhuxi wenxian sanshipian [Thirty documents by Chairman Mao], 93–112. Beijing: Beijing te shu gang chang xuan chuan qin wu zu bian yin.Google Scholar
Shiqi, Mi and Changwu, Gao. 2007. “Jiefang chuqi Beijing shi funü shengchan jiaoyangyuan de gongzuo: Yang Yunyu fangtan lu” [Working at Beijing's liberation-era women's reeducation and production center: Record of an interview with Yang Yunyu]. Dang de wenxian 1:42–43.Google Scholar
Mühlhahn, Klaus. 2009. Criminal Justice in China: A History. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
MZB (Minzheng Bu [Ministry of civil affairs]). 2003. Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo minzhengbu dashiji [People's Republic of China ministry of civil affairs record of important events]. Beijing: Zhongguo shehui chubanshe.Google Scholar
NCK (Neibu cankao [Internal reference materials]). 1951. November 29: 90.Google Scholar
NCK (Neibu cankao [Internal reference materials]). 1952a. September 2: 33–34.Google Scholar
NCK (Neibu cankao [Internal reference materials]). 1952b. October 8: 72–76.Google Scholar
NCK (Neibu cankao [Internal reference materials]). 1953a. June 12.Google Scholar
NCK (Neibu cankao [Internal reference materials]). 1953b. June 18.Google Scholar
NJ (Nanjing shi minzheng ju [Nanjing municipal department of social relief]). 1953. “Ge jiaoyang shengchan danwei guanli jiaoyu gongzuo zanxing banfa” [Provisional regulations for the control and education of each reeducation and production work unit]. BMA 196-2-24.Google Scholar
O'Brien, Kevin, and Li, Lianjiang. 2006. Rightful Resistance in Rural China. New York: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511791086Google Scholar
Oi, Jean C. 1989. State and Peasant in Contemporary China: The Political Economy of Village Government. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Zhen, Peng. 1941. “Jin-Cha-Ji bianqu gexiang juti zhengce ji dang de jianshe jingyan” [Experience related to concrete policies and party development in the Jin-Cha-Ji border region]. In Peng Zhen wenxuan [Selected works of Peng Zhen], 5. Beijing, Renmin chubanshe.Google Scholar
Perry, Elizabeth, and Selden, Mark. 2000. Chinese Society: Change, Conflict, and Resistance. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ning, Pu. 1994. Red in Tooth and Claw: Twenty-six Years in Communist Chinese Prisons. New York: Grove Press.Google Scholar
Renmin ribao [People's daily]. 1953. December 1.Google Scholar
Renmin ribao [People's daily]. 1957. April 13.Google Scholar
Rogaski, Ruth. 2002. “Nature, Annihilation, and Modernity: China's Korean War Germ-Warfare Experience Revisited.” Journal of Asian Studies 61(2):381–415.10.2307/2700295Google Scholar
Qinghua, Ruan. 2008. “Guiwei: jianguo chuqi shanghai youmin gaizao duixiang fenxi” [Restoration: Analysis of the subjects of the early PRC-era efforts to reform Shanghai vagrants]. Shilin 1:159–67.Google Scholar
Qinghua, Ruan. 2009. “Jianguo chuqi Shanghai fei chang yundong zai renshi” [Understanding Shanghai's early PRC-era efforts to eradicate prostitution]. Huadong shifan daxue xuebao 4:30–37.Google Scholar
Schram, Stuart. 1969. The Political Thought of Mao Zedong. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Schram, Stuart, and Hodes, Nancy. 1992. Mao's Road to Power: Revolutionary Writings, 1912-1949. Armonk, N.Y.: East Gate.Google Scholar
Scott, James. 1987. Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Scott, James. 1990. Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Seymour, James D., and Anderson, Richard. 1998. New Ghosts Old Ghosts: Prisons and Labor Reform Camps in China. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe.Google Scholar
Shuiqing, Shang. 2007. “Xin Zhongguo chengli chuqi youmin de anzhi he gaizao” [The reform and placement of vagrants during the establishment of New China]. Jiangxi shehui kexue 11.Google Scholar
Shapiro, Judith. 2001. Mao's War on Nature: Politics and the Environment in Revolutionary China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Shue, Vivienne. 1988. The Reach of the State: Sketches of the Chinese Body Politic. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Smith, Aminda M. 2013. Thought Reform and China's Dangerous Classes: Reeducation Resistance, and the People. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Smith, Stephen A. 2006. “Local Cadres Confront the Supernatural: The Politics of Holy Water (Shenshui) in the PRC, 1949–1966.” China Quarterly 163:999–1022.Google Scholar
Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. 1988. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” In Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, eds. Nelson, Cary and Grossberg, Lawrence, 271–313. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.10.1007/978-1-349-19059-1_20Google Scholar
Strauss, Julia. 2002. “Paternalist Terror: The Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries and Regime Consolidation in the People's Republic of China 1950–1953.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 44(1):80–105.10.1017/S001041750200004XGoogle Scholar
TMZ (Tianjin shi minzheng ju [Tianjin municipal bureau of civil affairs]). 1951.“Youmin gaizao gongzuo zongjie baogao, Shourong qigai gongzuo” [Work summary report on the reform of vagrants and the internment of beggars]. Tianjin shizheng 25:18–19.Google Scholar
Unger, Jonathan. 1989. “State and Peasant in Post-Revolution China.” Journal of Peasant Studies 17(1):114–36.Google Scholar
Williams, Philip F., and Wu, Yenna. 2004. The Great Wall of Confinement: The Chinese Prison Camp in Contemporary Fiction and Reportage. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Wu, Harry Hongda. 1992. Laogai: The Chinese Gulag. Translated by Slingerland, Ted. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Wu, Harry Hongda, and Wakeman, Carolyn. 1994. Bitter Winds: A Memoir of My Years in China's Gulag. New York: J. Wiley.Google Scholar
Yunfu, Wu. 1953. “Guanyu zhengdun shengchan jiaoyang gongzuo de baogao” [Report on the rectification work in reeducation and production]. BMA 196-2-33.Google Scholar
Yang, Anand. 2007. “Bandits and Kings: Moral Authority and Resistance in Early Colonial India.” Journal of Asian Studies 66(4):881–96.Google Scholar
Min, Yang. 2010. “1949 jinü de jiefang” [The 1949 liberation of prostitutes]. Zhongguo xinwen zhoukan, November 22, 76–78.Google Scholar
ZBQ (Zhongguo da baike quanshu [China unabridged encyclopedia]). 1991. “Shehui xue” [Social studies]. Beijing: Zhongguo da baike quanshu chubanshe.Google Scholar
Jiexun, Zhang. [1950] 1988. “Zenyang dui xuesheng jinxing jiaoyu” [How we educate the students]. In Beijing fengbi jiyuan jishi [A record of the closing of Beijing's brothels], Beijing shi gongan ju [Beijing public security bureau]. Beijing: Zhongguo heping chubanshe.Google Scholar
Xiyue, Zhao. 1953. “Chengshi shehui jiuji gongzuo baogao” [Work report on social relief in the cities]. November 16. BMA 196-2-24.Google Scholar
Zhou, Kate X. 1996. How the Farmers Changed China: Power of the People. New York: Perseus.Google Scholar
ZMD (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Minzhengbu dashiji [People's Republic of China ministry of civil affairs record of major events]). 2003. Beijing: Zhongguo shehu chubanshe.Google Scholar
ZNW (Zhongyang renmin zhengfu neiwu bu [Central people's government ministry of the interior]). 1953. “Zhishi” [Directive]. BMA 196-2-212.Google Scholar
ZNW (Zhongyang renmin zhengfu neiwu bu [Central people's government ministry of the interior]). 1956. “Guanyu anzhi gaizao chengshi youmin gongzuo de zhishi” [Directive on reform and placement of urban vagrants]. Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guowuyuan gongbao 28:690–94.Google Scholar
ZSH (Zhongguo renmin jiuji zonghui Shanghai fenhui [Shanghai branch of the China people's social relief central committee]) 1953. “Shengchan jiaoyangyuan shourong renyuan guanli banfa, caoan” [Regulations for the administration of reeducation center interned personnel]. BMA 196-2-24.Google Scholar
ZZ (Zhengzhou shi). 1953. “Shengchan jiaoyang yuan shengchan guanli jiaoyu zanxing banfa, caoan” [Provisional regulations for administration, education, and production in reeducation and production centers, draft measure]. BMA 196-2-24.Google Scholar