¹ The term ‘North’ refers throughout this article to the advanced industrialised countries, while ‘South’ refers to ‘developing’, ‘less-developed’, or third-world countries.

² Bradshaw, York W. and Tshandu, Zwelakhe, ‘Foreign Capital Penetration, State Intervention, and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa’, in International Studies Quarterly (Guildford), 34, 2, 06 1990, p. 231.Google Scholar

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⁸ Adekanye, J. 'Bayo, ‘Structural Adjustment, Democratization and Rising Ethic Tensions in Africa’, in Development and Change (London), 26, 2, 04 1995, pp. 355–74.Google Scholar According to Bienen, Henry and Gersovitz, Mark, ‘Consumer Subsidy Cuts, Violence, and Political Stability’, in Comparative Politics (New York), 19, 1, 10 1986, p. 25, ‘subsidy cuts may provoke discontent, but they do not appear to be more fundamental as a cause of instability than many other shortrun factors which are at work leading to social and political instability, not to say long-run trends in society’.Google Scholar

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¹⁰ Tanganyika African National Union, The Arusha Declaration and TANU's Policy on Socialism and Self-Reliance (Dar es Salaam, 1967).Google Scholar

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¹² Ministry of National Education, The Ministry of National Education Combined Annual Report for the Years 1970–1975 (Dar es Salaam, 1983), p. 2.Google Scholar

¹³ See Khalid, Abdallah, The Liberation of Swahili from European Appropriation (Nairobi, 1977), for more on this perspective as applied to Kenya.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Active participants in this debate have included Justinian Rweyemamu and Issa Shivji from Tanzania, Walter Rodney and Clive Thomas from Guyana, and Lionel Cliffe, John Saul, and Goran Hyden from the North. See Kenyanchui, Simon S. S., ‘Scholars' Conflicting Interpretations of Tanzanian Ujamaa: a review article’, in African Journal of Sociology (Nairobi), 3, 1, 05 1989, pp. 84–93.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Rasmussen, Lissi, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa: the cases of Northern Nigeria and Tanzania compared (London, 1993), p. 109.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Little attention was paid to the rôle of ujamma in mitigating ethnic tensions in Unesco, Two Studies on Ethnic Group Relations in Africa: Senegal and the United Republic of Tanzania (Paris, 1974).Google Scholar

¹⁷ Wagao, loc. cit. p. 99.

¹⁸ Change (Dar es Salaam), January 1993, p. 5.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Ibid. June-July 1994, p. 3.

²⁰ Ibid.

²¹ Africa Confidential (London), 36, 15, 21 July 1995.Google Scholar

²² Uhuru (Dar es Salaam), 4 September 1993, and Wakati ni Huu (Dar es Salaam), 7–13 September 1993.Google Scholar

²³ Research notes, Bruce Heilman, Bloomington, Indiana.

²⁴ Mfanyakazi (Dar es Salaam), 25 June 1994.Google Scholar

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²⁸ This incident was widely reported in Kenya and Tanzania during April and May 1993.

²⁹ Tripp, Aili Mari, ‘Local Organizations, Participation, and the State in Urban Tanzania’, in Hyden, Goran and Bratton, Michael (eds.), Government and Politics in Africa (Boulder and London, 1992), p. 238.Google Scholar

³⁰ See Daily News (Dar es Salaam), 18, 22, and 25 09 1995, for reports of political violence in the country.Google Scholar

³¹ According to Singh, Gurnam, ‘Modernisation, Ethnic Upsurge and Conflict in the World’, in International Journal of Group Tensions (New York), 24, 4, Winter 1994, p. 406, ‘The decline of the ideology of territorial nation-state created a sort of vacuity wherein ethnicity is fast emerging as the most solid basis for political formation and its sustenance’.Google Scholar

³² Africa Confidential, 36, 23–24, 17 11 and 1 12 1995.Google Scholar

³³ The Express (Dares Salaam), 26–28 10 1995, p. 8.Google Scholar

³⁴ On 24 October 1995, the CUF cited ‘a chain of irregularities that have surfaced in the electoral process’, and the following day the CCM issued a formal complaint ‘against the chain of irregularities done during the electroal process [which]… led to a lot of confusion where by causing the elections not to be free and fair’. On 27 October 1995, a press release by the Netherlands Embassy ‘on behalf of the Heads of Mission of seventeen bilateral donor agencies’, noted ‘discrepancies in the compliation of the votes for the Presidency’.

³⁵ Africa Confidential, 36, 24, 1 12 1995, p. 4.Google Scholar

³⁶ See Sheriff, Abdul and Ferguson, Ed (eds.), Zanzibar Under Colonial Rule (London, 1991), passim.Google Scholar

³⁷ Agence France Presse, E-mail, 14 March 1995.

³⁸ Fukayama, Francis, The End of History and the Last Man (New York, 1992).Google Scholar

³⁹ Adekanye, loc. cit. p. 367.