¹ Thakur, Ramesh, ‘From Great Power Collective Security to Middle Power Peacekeeping’, in Smith, Hugh (ed.), Australia and Peacekeeping (Canberra, Australian Defence Studies Centre, 1990), p. 20.Google Scholar

² Preston, Julia and Williams, Daniel, ‘Panel Blames U.S., UN and Aidid for Mayhem’, in International Herald Tribune (Paris), 1 04 1994.Google Scholar

³ See Claude, Inis, ‘Collective Security After the Cold War’, in Guertner, Gary L. (ed.), Collective Security in Europe and Asia (Carlisle, PA, U.S. Army War College, 1992), pp. 7–28.Google Scholar

⁴ See Huntington, Samuel P., ‘The Clash of Civilizations?’, in Foreign Affairs (New York), 72, Summer 1993, pp. 22–49.Google Scholar

⁵ Claude, loc. cit. p. 14.

⁶ One of the best discussions of the difference between collective security (one for all and all for one) and collective defence (us against them) remains Wolfers, Arnold, Discord and Collaboration (Baltimore, 1962), ch. 12.Google Scholar

⁷ Urquhart, Brian, A Life in Peace and War (London, 1987), p. 293.Google Scholar

⁸ Major-General Lewis Mackenzie, the former Canadian head of UN forces in Sarajevo, made the memorable comment that a UN commander in the field should not get into trouble ‘after 5 p.m. in New York, or Saturday and Sunday. There is no one to answer the phone’. In 1993 the UN established a 24-hour, seven days a week Situation Room that provides a direct link to its peacekeeping operations.Google Scholar

⁹ Pearson, Lester B., ‘Force for U.N.’, in Foreign Affairs, 35, April 1957, p. 401.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, An Agenda for Peace: preventive diplomacy, peace-making and peace-keeping (New York, UN Department of Public Information, 1992), para. 20, my emphasis.Google Scholar

¹¹ UN Chronicle (New York), 03 1993, p. 16.Google Scholar

¹² Ibid. p. 13.

¹³ Quoted in Maclean's (Toronto), 28 06 1993, p. 18.Google Scholar

¹⁴ See Cohen, Eliot A., ‘Constraints on America's Conduct of Small Wars’, in International Security (Cambridge, MA), 9, Fall 1984, pp. 151–81.Google Scholar

¹⁵ For background to the transformation of the humanitarian mission into US intervention, see Omaar, Rakiya and Waal, Alex de, Somalia: crimes and blunders, (London, forthcoming).Google Scholar

¹⁶ Maclean's, 26 July 1993, p. 20.

¹⁷ Kiley, Sam, ‘UN Gathers Men and Arms for “Final Assault” on Aidid’, in The Times (London), 17 08 1993. The hunt for the General was finally called off by the Security Council on 16 November, and he participated in a UN-sponsored humanitarian conference in Addis Ababa in December 1993.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Thakur, Ramesh, ‘Human Rights: Amnesty International and the United Nations’, in Journal of Peace Research (London), 31, 2, 1994, pp. 143–60.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Amnesty International, Peace-keeping and Human Rights (London, 1994).Google Scholar

²⁰ Ibid. p. 20.

²¹ Richburg, Keith, ‘60 Die in Somalia as West Pulls Back and Chaos Returns’, in International Herald Tribune, 14 February 1994.Google Scholar

²² The Economist (London), 24 07 1993, p. 22.Google Scholar

²³ Atkinson, Rick, ‘UN Oasis Walls Off Mogadishu's Squalor’, in International Herald Tribune, 27–28 November 1993.Google Scholar

²⁴ Amnesty International, op. cit. p. 21.

²⁵ See Thakur, Ramesh, International Peacekeeping in Lebanon: United Nations Authority and Multinational Force (Boulder, CO, 1987).Google Scholar

²⁶ Thakur, Ramesh, The Politics and Economics of India's Foreign Policy (London, 1994), pp. 187–91.Google Scholar

²⁷ The figures were provided by Boutros-Ghali, in UN Chronicle, March 1993, p. 14.Google Scholar

²⁸ Ibid. p. 15.

²⁹ Natsios, Andrew S. (Vice-President of World Vision), ‘Food through Force: humanitarian intervention and U.S. Policy’, in Washington Quarterly, 17, Winter 1994, p. 138.Google Scholar

³⁰ UN Chronicle, December 1992, p. 8.Google Scholar

³¹ Natsios, loc. cit. p. 133.

³² Krauthammer, Charles, ‘The Immaculate Intervention’, in Time (New York), 26 07 1993, p. 66.Google Scholar

³³ Wolfowitz, Paul D., ‘Clinton's First Year’, in Foreign Affairs, 73, 01—02 1994, p. 38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁴ For an important exception, see Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, Pandaemonium: ethnicity in international politics (New York, 1993).Google Scholar

³⁵ See James, Alan, ‘Internal Peace-keeping: a dead end for the UN?’, in Security Dialogue (London), 24, 12 1993, pp. 359–68,Google Scholar and Roberts, Adam, ‘The United Nations and International Security’, in Survival (London), 35, Summer 1993, pp. 9–11.Google ScholarPubMed

³⁶ At a panel discussion held at the UN in April 1993, Charles William Maynes, the editor of Foreign Policy, used the analogy of the Los Angeles riots. There was no black or hispanic leader to go to for stopping the riots, and the people could not be threatened, bribed, or persuaded to end the rioting. The two ‘terrible alternatives’ were to allow the riots to burn out, as they did with the loss of 54 lives, or to impose martial law and risk the death of 53 or 153 lives. United Nations,Google ScholarNew Realities: disarmament, peace-building and global security (New York, 1993), p. 338.Google Scholar

³⁷ Huntington, loc. cit. p. 40.

³⁸ Gerlach, Jeffrey R., ‘A U.N. Army for the New World Order?’, in Orbis (Philadelphia), 37, Spring 1993, p. 226.Google Scholar

³⁹ Lefever, Ernest W., ‘Reining in the U.N.: mistaking the instrument for the actor’, in Foreign Affairs, 72, Summer 1993, pp. 17–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁰ Unnamed US official quoted in Time, 18 October 1993, p. 35.

⁴¹ For a good account of the deliberate shift from the Bush to the Clinton Administration, see Bolton, John R. (Assistant Secretary of State for International Organisation in the Bush Administration), ‘Wrong Turn in Somalia’, in Foreign Affairs, 73, 01—02 1994, pp. 56–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴² Based on confidential discussions with officials who were involved in the decision to set up the UN Operation in Somalia.Google Scholar

⁴³ Pringle, Peter, ‘Ghali:wrong man at the top’, in Independent (Bombay), 3 02 1994.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ This was recognised by Boutros-Ghali on op. cit. paras 55–9. See also various contributions in Thakur, Ramesh, and Thayer, Carlyle A. (eds.), UN Peacekeeping in the 1990s (Boulder, 1995).Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Quoted in Thakur, Ramesh, Peacekeeping in Vietnam: Canada, India, Poland and the International Commission (Edmonton, 1984), p. 200.Google Scholar