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⁹ On the suppression of radicalism in monuments to the Revolution see Young, Alfred E., The Shoemaker and the Tea Party: Memory and the American Revolution (Boston, 1999)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York, 1983), 64Google Scholar. Seymour, a Hunker Democrat, favored states’ rights, considered Lincoln despotic, and regarded Reconstruction as unwarranted and vindictive; see Mitchell, Stewart, Horatio Seymour of New York (Cambridge, MA, 1938), 238–40Google Scholar.

¹¹ On national reunion's racist underpinning see Blight, Race and Reunion; Brundage, William Fitzhugh, The Southern Past: A Clash of Race and Memory (Cambridge, MA, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Blum, Edward J., Reforging the White Republic: Race, Religion, and American Nationalism, 1865–1898 (Baton Rouge, 2005)Google Scholar. On memorial builders’ efforts to use war commemoration to unify pluralistic national identity, see Piehler, G. Kurt, Remembering War the American Way (Washington, 1995)Google Scholar.

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¹⁴ Kirk Savage describes the Washington Monument as a “project built on ambiguity,” more so than any other monument before or since its completion in 1885; Savage, , Monument Wars: Washington, D.C., the National Mall, and the Transformation of the Memorial Landscape (Berkeley, 2009), 141Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Glassberg, David, American Historical Pageantry: The Uses of Tradition in the Early Twentieth Century (Charlotte, NC, 1990), 4Google Scholar.

¹⁶ Glassberg, American Historical Pageantry, 246. See also Bodnar, John E., Remaking America: Public Memory, Commemoration, and Patriotism in the Twentieth Century (Princeton, 1993)Google Scholar; Gillis, John R., ed., Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity (Princeton, 1994)Google Scholar; Spillman, Lynette P., Nation and Commemoration: Creating National Identities in the United States and Australia (Cambridge, 1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁸ Yablon, Nick, “‘Land of Unfinished Monuments’: The Ruins-in-Reverse of Nineteenth-Century America,” American Nineteenth Century History 14 (June 2012): 153–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 156.

¹⁹ See, in particular, Bodnar, Remaking America; Connerton, Paul, How Societies Remember (Cambridge, 1989)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gillis, ed., Commemorations; Nuttall, Sarah and Coetzee, Carli, eds., Negotiating the Past: The Making of Memory in South Africa (Cape Town, 1998)Google Scholar.

²⁰ Moeller, Robert G., War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal Republic (Berkeley, 2003)Google Scholar; Kammen, Michael, Mystic Chord of Memory: The Transformation of American Culture (New York, 1991)Google Scholar.

²¹ Weartsch, James V., Voices of Collective Remembering (New York, 2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 35. See also Casey, Edward S., “Public Memory in Place and Time” in Framing Public Memory, ed. Phillips, Kendall R. (Tuscaloosa, 2004), 17–44Google Scholar, 17.

²² Jeffrey K. Olick criticizes collective memory scholarship for overlooking the fact that “only individuals remember”; Olick, , “Collective Memory: The Two Cultures,” Sociological Theory 17 (Nov. 1999): 333–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 338.

²³ The federal government did take an early lead in the preservation of Civil War graves. See Piehler, Remembering War, 49–52.

²⁴ Geoffrey O'Brien details Walworth's career in patriotic endeavors from the 1870s to her death, but mentions her SMA work only briefly; O'Brien, , The Fall of the House of Walworth: A Tale of Madness and Murder in Gilded Age America (New York, 2010), 256Google Scholar.

²⁵ Historians have demonstrated the utility of this combined approach in studies of Southern white women's efforts to commemorate the lost cause. See Mills, Cynthia and Simpson, Pamela Hemenway, eds., Monuments to the Lost Cause: Women, Art, and the Landscapes of Southern Memory (Knoxville, 2003)Google Scholar; Janney, Caroline, Burying the Dead but Not the Past: Ladies’ Memorial Associations and the Lost Cause (Chapel Hill, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brundage, W. Fitzhugh, “White Women and the Politics of Historical Memory in the South, 1880–1920” in Jumpin’ Jim Crow: Southern Politics from Civil War to Civil Rights, eds. Dailey, Jane, Gilmore, Glenda, and Simon, Bryant (Princeton, 2000), 115–39Google Scholar; Brundage, , The Southern Past: A Clash of Race and Memory (Cambridge, MA, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, especially “Archiving White Memory,” 124–35. White women were also active prior to the war in preservation projects oriented to the history of the South; see Howe, Barbara J., “Women in Historic Preservation: the Legacy of Ann Pamela Cunningham,” The Public Historian 12:1 (1990): 31–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁶ In making this claim, I draw on John Brewer's call for a “commitment to a humanist agenda which places human agency and historical meaning in the realm of day-to-day transactions and which sees social reality as grounded in the quotidian”; Brewer, , “Microhistory and the Histories of Everyday Life,” Cultural and Social History 7:1 (2010): 87–109CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 91.

²⁷ For an excellent example of this approach applied to the founders of the Daughters of the American Revolution, see Woden S. Teachout, “Founding Daughters” in “Forging Memory: Hereditary Societies, Patriotism, and the American Past, 1876–1898” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2003), 81–111.

²⁸ According to Kirk Savage, historical monuments are inherently conservative because they attempt to “plunge” events “into a past secured against the vicissitudes of the present”; Savage, Standing Soldiers, 4.

²⁹ The State officially assumed control of the site in 1897, and in 1980 the National Park Service assumed responsibility for the site and its interpretation. The monument is in the village of Victory, on the outskirts of Schuylerville. For a virtual tour see “Saratoga Monument Virtual Tour,” www.nps.gov/sara/photosmultimedia/saratoga-monument-virtual-tour.htm (accessed Sep. 2, 2011).

³⁰ Tuckerman, Henry T., “Holidays,” North American Review 84 (Apr. 1857): 334–63Google Scholar. Tuckerman (1813–71) venerated “The memory of Washington” as “the highest and most precious of national blessings” in the opening chapter of his, Essays, Biographical and Critical; or, Studies of Character (Boston, 1857), 5Google Scholar.

³¹ Brown, Richard D., “Microhistory and the Post-Modern Challenge,” Journal of the Early Republic 23 (Spring 2003): 1–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 19.

³² Sylvester, Nathaniel Bartlett, History of Saratoga County, New York, with Illustrations and Biographical Sketches of Some of its Prominent Men and Pioneers (Philadelphia, 1878), 203Google Scholar, 261–63.

³³ Stone, History of the Saratoga Monument Association, 5.

³⁴ Nevins, Allan, Hamilton Fish: The Inner History of the Grant Administration (New York, 1937)Google Scholar; Mitchell, Stewart, Horatio Seymour of New York (Cambridge, 1938)Google Scholar. Gansevoort was a wealthy Albany patrician and a member of the Albany Cemetery Association; Kenny, Alice P., “The Transformation of the Albany Patricians, 1778–1860,” New York History 68 (Apr. 1997): 153–73Google Scholar.

³⁵ Wallace, Patriotism on Parade, 20–21, 92.

³⁶ Stone, History of the Saratoga Monument Association, 6.

³⁷ After the war, even those whose lost kin could be found and buried often “spent the rest of their lives waiting for the promised heavenly reunion with those who had gone before”; Faust, Drew Gilpin, This Republic of Suffering (New York, 2008), 170Google Scholar.

³⁸ Wilson, James Grant, ed., Appleton's Cyclopaedia of American Biography, vol. 5 (New York, 1900), 705–6Google Scholar. Prior to joining the board Stone published a stream of historical publications, including The Life and Times of Sir William Johnson, Bart. (Albany, 1865)Google Scholar; Life and Writings of Col. William L. Stone (Albany, 1866)Google Scholar; Letters and Journals of Mrs. General Riedesel (Albany, 1867)Google Scholar; Life and Military Journals of Major-General Riedesel (Albany, 1868)Google Scholar.

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⁴⁰ Sandage, Scott, “The Gilded Age” in A Companion to American Cultural History, ed. Halttunen, Karen (Oxford, 2008), 139–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 140.

⁴¹ Stone, History of the Saratoga Monument Association, 9. The Washington Monument fell into bankruptcy in 1854, partly because of the Society's takeover by the nativist Know Nothing Party in 1853. Work did not resume until 1877; Savage, Monument Wars, 76–77.

⁴² Petition to the Senate and Assembly of the State of New York, quoted in Stone, History of the Saratoga Monument Association, 10.

⁴³ Stone, History of the Saratoga Monument Association, 11.

⁴⁴ Warren, George Washington, The History of the Bunker Hill Monument Association during the first century of the United States of America (Boston, 1877), 375Google Scholar.

⁴⁵ Savage, Monument Wars, 236. The monument was originally conceived to mark the sacrifice of naval personnel in the Civil War. Admiral David D. Porter sponsored it, hoping that it would depict “History” and “Grief.” Congressional funding was contingent on the addition of “Peace,” which was added in 1878; Chapter 246, Congressional Act July 31, 1876 (19 Stat. 114).

⁴⁶ Stone, Memoir of the Centennial Celebration, 22.

⁴⁷ Sylvester, History of Saratoga County, 122–24. Stevens had just founded the Sons of the Revolution in 1876, frustrated that he could not become a member of the Society of the Cincinnati because his father was not an eldest son. “History of the Sons of the Revolution in the State of New York,” http://frauncestavernmuseum.org/history-and-education/history-of-srny/ (accessed Aug. 10, 2013).

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⁴⁹ Stone, Memoir of the Centennial Celebration, 20. The stone was valued at $350.

⁵⁰ Stone claimed that “persons whose experience in large gatherings of a like nature rendered them competent judges” had provided the attendance estimate; Stone, Memoir of the Centennial Celebration, 8.

⁵¹ Bernstein, Iver, The New York City Draft Riots: Their Significance for American Society and Politics in the Age of the Civil War (New York, 1990)Google Scholar. Bernstein doubts that Seymour addressed the anti-drafters as “friends” in a speech on July 4, 1863, nine days before the riots broke out. For a more critical appraisal, see Murdock, Eugene C., “Horatio Seymour and the 1863 Draft,” Civil War History 11 (June 1965): 117–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁵⁴ Stone, Memoir of the Centennial Celebration, 21–22.

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⁵⁸ Morgan, Francesca, Women and Patriotism in Jim Crow America (Durham, 2005), 3Google Scholar.

⁵⁹ Among the other women's lineal and patriotic organizations formed in this era were the Colonial Dames of America, the Dames of the Revolution, the Daughters of the Cincinnati, and the Daughters of Founders and Patriots of America. The DAR was by far the largest and most influential. Davies, Patriotism on Parade, 360.

⁶⁰ Peltonen, Matti, “Clues, Margins, and Monads: The Micro–Macro Link in Historical Research,” History and Theory 40:3 (2001): 347–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 357. The term “exceptional typical” was coined by Edoardo Grendi in 1977 and later promoted by Carlo Ginzburg.

⁶¹ Edwards argues that women did not form a separate women's political culture, though most who worked with men “demonstrated female consciousness,” and “believed that their gender identity was a useful political tool”; Edwards, , Angels in the Machinery: Gender in American Party Politics from the Civil War to the Progressive Era (New York, 1997), 9Google Scholar, 12.

⁶² Kammen, Mystic Chords, 318.

⁶³ “Pine Grove,” on the main street of Saratoga Springs, was named by Chancellor Walworth. The couple had lived there with their parents, children, and an African American maid, Dolly Smith. Ellen Walworth called her school the Walworth Academy and her boarding home advertised as The Walworth Mansion; O'Brien, The Fall of the House of Walworth, 278.

⁶⁴ Piehler, Remembering War, 47–48.

⁶⁵ Davies, Patriotism on Parade, 45–46; Teachout, “Forging Memory,” 10–11; Foner, Reconstruction, 410.

⁶⁶ Ellen Walworth, Private Journal, July 18, 1880, Walworth Memorial Museum and Archives (hereafter Walworth Journal).

⁶⁷ Hardin was appointed State's Attorney in 1832, served in the Illinois House of Representatives from 1836 to 1842, and was elected a Whig congressman from 1843 to 1845. A colonel in the state militia, he recruited a volunteer regiment in the Mexican-American War. On Feb. 23, 1847, he was killed in the Battle of Buena Vista; Biographical Directory of the American Congress, 1774–1949 (Washington, 1950), 1265Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ Eames, Charles, Historic Morgan and Classic Jacksonville (Jacksonville, 1885), 69–71Google Scholar.

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⁷¹ John Henry to Ellen Walworth, n.d., 1878, folder 7, box 18, Hardin Family Papers, Chicago Historical Society.

⁷² O'Brien, The Fall of the House of Walworth, 90–103.

⁷³ On the allure of Roman Catholicism in the mid-nineteenth century, see Allitt, Patrick, Catholic Converts: British and American Intellectuals Turn to Rome (Ithaca, 1997), 3Google Scholar.

⁷⁴ Executive Clemency Pardon Case Files – Frank W. Walworth, July 17, 1873, A0597-78, folder 35, box 10, New York State Archives.

⁷⁵ Walworth sued for divorce in Jan. 1871, and the decree of separation was granted four months later; Superior Court, New York County, Ellen H. Walworth v. Mansfield T. Walworth, New York City Municipal Archives.

⁷⁶ O'Brien, The Fall of the House of Walworth, 8–21.

⁷⁷ New York Herald, June 28, 1873, 4; New York Times, June 26, 1873, 2.

⁷⁸ “Another Sentimental Murder,” Brooklyn Eagle, June 4, 1873.

⁷⁹ “Discriminating Justice,” Christian Advocate (New York), Aug. 7, 1873.

⁸⁰ Auburn Daily Bulletin, Aug. 2, 1877.

⁸¹ Walworth, Battles of Saratoga 1777, Preface, n.p.

⁸² Walworth Journal, Mar. 14, 1880.

⁸³ Davies, Patriotism on Parade, 229–44.

⁸⁴ Kammen, Mystic Chords, 12. Kammen periodizes this phase as 1870 to 1915.

⁸⁵ “Mrs. Walworth's Letter” in Stone, William Leete, Visits to the Saratoga Battle-Grounds, 1780–1880, with an Introduction and Notes (Albany, 1895), 307Google Scholar.

⁸⁶ Walworth, Journal, Mar. 14, 1880.

⁸⁷ On June 5, 1876, the Saratoga Sun published a letter signed by “Mrs. E. H. Walworth, President of the Saratoga local committee of the Mount Vernon Ladies Association.” On the Association's history and founder, see Conn, Steven, “Rescuing the Homestead of the Nation: The Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association and the Preservation of Mount Vernon,” Nineteenth Century Studies 11 (Spring 1997): 71–94Google Scholar.

⁸⁸ Ellen Walworth, “An Appeal for funds to repair and furnish the residence at Mount Vernon preparatory to the Centennial [sic] Celebration at Philadelphia 1876,” typescript, n.d., Walworth Memorial Museum and Archives.

⁸⁹ The defense used the letters as evidence to prove that the victim was a madman, whom their client had reason to fear, and to suggest that the son had inherited his father's insanity; O'Brien, The Fall of the House of Walworth, 204–7.

⁹⁰ Walworth, Journal, n.d. Jan., 1879.

⁹¹ Nora, “Between History and Memory,” 8; Novick, Peter, That Noble Dream: The Objectivity Question and the American Historical Profession (Cambridge, 1998)Google Scholar.

⁹² Jardins, Des, Women and the Historical Enterprise: Gender, Race, and the Politics of Memory, 1880–1945 (Chapel Hill, 2003), 1Google Scholar.

⁹³ Levin, David, History as Romantic Art: Bancroft, Prescott, Motley, and Parkman (Stanford, 1959)Google Scholar. Despite the rise of German-trained historians in the profession, accessible amateur works, such as Walworth's and Stone's, were far more popular; Van Tassell, David D., Recording America's Past: Interpretation of the Development of Historical Studies in America, 1607–1884 (Chicago, 1960), 118–19Google Scholar.

⁹⁴ Walworth, Journal, July 9, 1879.

⁹⁵ Harvard Librarian Justin Winsor included Walworth's 1877 Battlefield guide in his The Reader's Handbook of the American Revolution, 1761–1783 (Boston, 1880)Google Scholar. He included works he considered “the best; or because they are significant above others”; Preface, iii.

⁹⁶ Martha J. Lamb, also a divorced woman, purchased the Magazine in 1883 and became its chief editor. She authored a highly regarded two-volume study, History of the City of New York: Its Origin, Rise, and Progress (1877 and 1880). The Magazine folded after she died in 1893.

⁹⁷ Magazine of American History 1 (May 1877): 273–302Google Scholar.

⁹⁸ Stone, William L., Campaign of General Burgoyne and St. Leger's Expedition (Albany, 1877)Google Scholar. In 1876 he was appointed the Centennial Historian of the State of New York.

⁹⁹ Walworth, Journal, July 9, 1879.

¹⁰⁰ Walworth, Battles of Saratoga, 55.

¹⁰¹ De Peyster came from a line of wealthy merchants, stretching back to the New Netherland period. Allaben, Frank, John Watts de Peyster (New York, 1908)Google Scholar.

¹⁰² Frank Walworth never became self-supporting after his release, and nor did his brother Tracy, who was an invalid; O'Brien, The Fall of the House of Walworth, 265–67.

¹⁰³ Walworth, Ellen Hardin, Saratoga. Battle. Battle Ground. Visitors’ Guide. With Maps (New York, 1877), 73Google Scholar. The 102-page guide included Walworth's imagined account of an ideal visit.

¹⁰⁴ An adulatory biography, written by a member of the DAR, posits a romantic relationship between Markham and Walworth; Simkovich, Patricia Joy, Indomitable Spirit: The Life of Ellen Hardin Walworth (Washington, 1990), 218–19Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁵ Colonel David A. Ritchie, the editor of The Saratogian; and Edward F. Bullard, a lawyer, the Brigadier-General of the Ninth Brigade, and a grand nephew, on his mother's side, of three Revolutionary soldiers were the trustees who formally introduced Walworth; Sylvester, History of Saratoga County, 198–99.

¹⁰⁶ Ellen Walworth, “The Battles of Saratoga—Burgoyne and the Northern Campaign” in Walworth, Saratoga, 28. On battlefield tourism see Seaton, Anthony V., “Guided by the Dark: From Thanatopsis to Thanatourism,” International Journal of Heritage Studies 2 (1996): 234–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Seaton, “War and Thanatourism: Waterloo, 1815–1914,” Annals of Tourism Research 26 (1999): 130–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰⁷ Walworth, Battles of Saratoga, preface, n.p.

¹⁰⁸ As Edward T. Linenthal notes, the National Park Service inherited this sense of reverence: “people approach [battlefields] not only as vestiges of the past, as vehicles for enlightenment, but also as shrines, as temples for veneration”; Linenthal, Sacred Ground: Americans and their Battlefields (Urbana, IL, 1993)Google Scholar, x.

¹⁰⁹ Seven of the markers (also designed by Markham) were pictured in the 1891 edition of Walworth's Guide.

¹¹⁰ Walworth, Battles of Saratoga, preface, n.p.

¹¹¹ Walworth, Battles of Saratoga, 99. Martin D. Hardin (1837–1923) was a brigadier general in the Union Army and subsequently a lawyer; “Hardin, Martin, D.,” http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000186 (accessed Aug. 20, 2013).

¹¹² Samuel S. Cox, “Address to the House of Representatives,” Feb., 1884, in Walworth, Saratoga, 89.

¹¹³ Giles Slocum to William Stone, June 27, 1881, in Walworth, Battles of Saratoga, 64–65. Slocum was a Michigan representative on the Association, a former Saratogian, and a direct descendent of a volunteer in the Revolutionary war.

¹¹⁴ Purcell, Sealed with Blood, 195.

¹¹⁵ Markham, Jared Clark, Saratoga Monument: Historic Sculpture: Together with a Brief Reference to some of the General and Elementary Principles Involved in a National Art and the Leading Characteristics and Uses of Art in General (n.p., 1886), 14Google Scholar.

¹¹⁶ Kammen, Mystic Chords, 163–64.

¹¹⁷ Walworth, Battles of Saratoga, 55.

¹¹⁸ Walworth, Battles of Saratoga, 55.

¹¹⁹ Walworth, Battles of Saratoga, 54. For Starin's congressional career see “Starin, John Henry,” http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=S000808 (accessed Aug. 20, 2013).

¹²⁰ In 1874 Cox had led the campaign to restore and augment the Washington monument. See Chipman, Norton Parker, Washington National Monument: Shall the Unfinished Obelisk Stand a Monument of National Disgrace and National Dishonor?: Speeches of Hon. Norton P. Chipman of the District of Columbia, Hon. R. C. McCormick of Arizona, Hon. Jasper D. Ward of Illinois, Hon. John B. Storm of Pennsylvania, Hon. J. B. Sener of Virginia, Hon. S. S. Cox of New York, in the House of Representatives, June 4, 1874 (Washington, 1874)Google Scholar.

¹²¹ Ashabranner, Brent K. and Ashabranner, Jennifer, The Washington Monument: A Beacon for America (Brookfield, 2002), 50Google Scholar.

¹²² Yablon, “Land of Unfinished Monuments,” 185. One example is Adelaide Johnson's 1921 monument, first commissioned in 1899, to commemorate the struggle for woman's suffrage (184–85).

¹²³ On the fit between this decision and more recent ones, see Rowlands, Michael, “Remembering to Forget: Sublimation as Sacrifice in War Memorials” in The Art of Forgetting, eds. Forty, Adrian and Küchler, Susanne (Oxford, 1999), 130–31Google Scholar.

¹²⁴ Andrew D. White to George William Curtis, May 5, 1884, in Walworth, Battles of Saratoga, 76.

¹²⁵ B. W. Throckmorten, “Arnold” in Stone, Memoir of the Centennial Celebrations, 126–32, 127, 132.

¹²⁶ White to SMA Executive member, P. C. Ford, May 5, 1884, in Walworth, Battles of Saratoga, 76. White (1832–1918) became the AHA's first president in 1884, after serving as the first president of Cornell University.

¹²⁷ Walworth, Battles of Saratoga, 82. The official title of the bas-relief was “Wounding of Arnold.”

¹²⁸ The Joint Committee on the Library was officially charged to consider the statuary and art of the capitol, but it also considered funding requests for the Revolution's commemoration by the early 1880s. The appropriation of $40,000 was approved by the SMA's Feb. 1885 meeting. Walworth, Battles of Saratoga, 80.

¹²⁹ Allaben, John Watts de Peyster, 22.

¹³⁰ Allaben, John Watts de Peyster, preface.

¹³¹ Walworth, Battles of Saratoga, 98–99.

¹³² Walworth, Battles of Saratoga, 107.

¹³³ Stone, Visits to the Saratoga Battle-Grounds, 10.

¹³⁴ Walworth, Battles of Saratoga, 113.

¹³⁵ Stone, Memoir of the Centennial Celebration, 18.

¹³⁶ Savage notes that slavery's abolition was more difficult to represent sculpturally than the violence of slavery; Savage, Standing Soldiers, 65.

¹³⁷ 1877 was one of the bloodiest years in the nation's peacetime history; Bellesiles, Michael A., 1877: America's Year of Living Violently (New York, 2010)Google Scholar.

¹³⁸ Brown, “Microhistory and the Post-Modern Challenge,” 19.

¹³⁹ On microhistorians’ neglect of elites, see Lepore, Jill, “Historians Who Love Too Much: Reflections on Microhistory and Biography,” The Journal of American History 88 (June 2001): 129–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 131.

¹⁴⁰ See, for instance, Goebel, Stefan, The Great War and Medieval Memory: War, Remembrance and Medievalism in Britain and Germany, 1914–1940 (Cambridge, 2007)Google Scholar; Jelin, Elizabeth, State Repression and the Labors of Memory (St. Paul, MN, 2003)Google Scholar.