Statement of Research Significance
Research Question(s) or Topic(s): Exploration of alternative approaches to characterize single-word level language functioning in multiple sclerosis. Main Findings: The Sydney Language Battery was at least, if not more, effective than the ‘gold standard’ Boston Naming Test in assessing language function in multiple sclerosis, despite requiring briefer administration times. This measure additionally captured more impairment than standard multiple sclerosis cognitive evaluation alone. Longer mean latencies were also identified on this task for patients as compared to controls, indicative of difficulties during word retrieval. Study Contributions: This study presents the Sydney Language Battery as a valid tool for assessing single-word level language function in multiple sclerosis and highlights its clinical value as an adjunct to standard cognitive evaluation. Latency analysis is additionally presented as a valuable approach to extend language characterization, contributing to a broader assessment while maintaining brief administration. This study thereby offers clinicians an enhanced toolkit to more effectively and completely evaluate cognitive functioning in multiple sclerosis.
Introduction
Language impairment is commonly reported, but under-recognized in multiple sclerosis (MS). Seventy-five percent of MS patients self-report language difficulties, particularly problems with single word-level language production such as word-finding difficulties, which significantly impede quality of life (El-Wahsh et al., Reference El-Wahsh, Ballard, Kumfor and Bogaardt2020). Evidence of objective single-word level language impairment has additionally been captured on tasks of confrontation naming (Beatty & Monson, Reference Beatty and Monson1989; Kujala et al., Reference Kujala, Portin and Ruutiainen1996; Tallberg & Bergendal, Reference Tallberg and Bergendal2009), though, its characterization remains somewhat limited due to its omission from standard MS cognitive evaluation and the inconsistent findings that arise from current language measures (Brandstadter et al., Reference Brandstadter, Fabian, Leavitt, Krieger, Yeshokumar, Katz Sand, Klineova, Riley, Lewis, Pelle, Lublin, Miller and Sumowski2020; Jennekens-Schinkel et al., Reference Jennekens-Schinkel, Lanser, van der Velde and Sanders1990; Langdon et al., Reference Langdon, Amato, Boringa, Brochet, Foley, Fredrikson, Hämäläinen, Hartung, Krupp, Penner, Reder and Benedict2012). This study therefore aims to enhance the characterization of language functioning in MS by exploring the clinical utility of alternative instruments and examining additional features of confrontation naming which may better capture the impairment than accuracy alone.
Cognitive evaluation in MS typically relies on brief cognitive batteries that primarily target processing speed, attention, memory, and executive functioning (Benedict et al., Reference Benedict, Fischer, Archibald, Arnett, Beatty, Bobholz, Chelune, Fisk, Langdon, Caruso, Foley, LaRocca, Vowels, Weinstein, DeLuca, Rao and Munschauer2002; Grzegorski & Losy, Reference Grzegorski and Losy2017; Langdon et al., Reference Langdon, Amato, Boringa, Brochet, Foley, Fredrikson, Hämäläinen, Hartung, Krupp, Penner, Reder and Benedict2012; Rao et al., Reference Rao, Leo, Bernardin and Unverzagt1991). The Brief International Cognitive Assessment for Multiple Sclerosis (BICAMS; Langdon et al., Reference Langdon, Amato, Boringa, Brochet, Foley, Fredrikson, Hämäläinen, Hartung, Krupp, Penner, Reder and Benedict2012) in particular is currently recommended as the clinical benchmark for cognitive evaluation in this population and assesses processing speed, supraspan verbal memory, and visual memory (Maltby et al., Reference Maltby, Lea, Ribbons, Lea, Schofield and Lechner-Scott2020). The omission of language from the BICAMS highlights the under recognition of impairment in this domain and suggests the potential limitations of relying solely upon this measure to sufficiently characterize cognitive impairment in MS.
Current measures of single word-level language production in MS, however, are narrowly defined and tend to exhibit inconsistencies. Confrontation naming tasks are widely endorsed measures of single-word level language production (Strauss et al., Reference Strauss, Sherman and Spreen2006). Existing tasks, such as the current ‘gold standard’ Boston Naming Test (BNT; Kaplan et al., Reference Kaplan, Goodglass and Weintraub1983) have, however, produced inconsistent results in assessing MS naming functioning. While some studies report poorer BNT scores for patients compared to controls (Beatty & Monson, Reference Beatty and Monson1989; Kujala et al., Reference Kujala, Portin and Ruutiainen1996; Tallberg & Bergendal, Reference Tallberg and Bergendal2009), others report no significant group difference (Beatty et al., Reference Beatty, Goodkin, Monson and Beatty1989; Jennekens-Schinkel et al., Reference Jennekens-Schinkel, Lanser, van der Velde and Sanders1990; Olivares et al., Reference Olivares, Nieto, Sánchez, Wollmann, Hernández and Barroso2005). Scores on the BNT have also been found to poorly correlate with patient-reported word-finding difficulties (Brandstadter et al., Reference Brandstadter, Fabian, Leavitt, Krieger, Yeshokumar, Katz Sand, Klineova, Riley, Lewis, Pelle, Lublin, Miller and Sumowski2020). These inconsistencies suggest existing assessment methods used in the MS population may not completely capture single-word level language impairment. Validation of alternative methods capable of providing a more consistent and complete characterization of single-word level language function in this population therefore appears necessary.
An alternative tool that may characterize language functioning in MS is the naming subtest of the SYDBAT; an Australian visual confrontation naming task (Savage et al., Reference Savage, Hsieh, Leslie, Foxe, Piguet and Hodges2013). The SYDBAT naming subtest, simply referred to as the SYDBAT henceforth, has previously demonstrated its suitability in assessing naming impairment, reporting high convergent validity with the short form BNT in its original primary progressive aphasia population (Savage et al., Reference Savage, Hsieh, Leslie, Foxe, Piguet and Hodges2013). Unlike the increasingly outdated BNT (Beattey et al., Reference Beattey, Murphy, Cornwell, Braun, Stein, Goldstein and Bender2017), this task consists of a set of contemporary items that may more appropriately and effectively assess naming function in a modern-day population (Savage et al., Reference Savage, Hsieh, Leslie, Foxe, Piguet and Hodges2013). The SYDBAT additionally has a briefer administration time, making it a potentially superior alternative to the BNT as an adjunct to existing brief MS cognitive batteries (Savage et al., Reference Savage, Hsieh, Leslie, Foxe, Piguet and Hodges2013). Specific validation in this population is necessary to accurately ascertain suitability.
Examining alternative features of confrontation naming beyond accuracy scores may also be valuable in enhancing the characterization of MS language. Two viable approaches include error and latency analyses, with specific error types indicating breakdown in distinct cognitive–linguistic processes (Lethlean & Murdoch, Reference Lethlean and Murdoch1994), and response times capturing more subtle difficulties during the retrieval processes (Goodglass et al., Reference Goodglass, Theurkauf and Wingfield1984). Previous studies employing these techniques in MS reveal high rates of semantic errors indicative of impaired semantic selection (De Dios Pérez et al., Reference De Dios Pérez, Cordova Luna, Cloutman, Rog, Preston and Conroy2020; Kujala et al., Reference Kujala, Portin and Ruutiainen1996; Lethlean & Murdoch, Reference Lethlean and Murdoch1994), and longer mean latencies reflecting lexical retrieval difficulties (Beatty & Monson, Reference Beatty and Monson1989; De Dios Pérez et al., Reference De Dios Pérez, Cordova Luna, Cloutman, Rog, Preston and Conroy2020; Kujala et al., Reference Kujala, Portin and Ruutiainen1996). This retrieval difficulty was further observed irrespective of overall confrontation naming score (Beatty & Monson, Reference Beatty and Monson1989). These techniques may therefore extend the characterization of single-word level language beyond that of total scores alone, thereby providing valuable insight in developing a more complete assessment of the cognitive–linguistic impairment.
This study will therefore explore alternative approaches for assessing single-word level language to improve the characterization of language functioning in MS. It aims to achieve this by (1) validating the SYDBAT against the ‘gold standard’ confrontation naming task, the BNT, and considering its value as an adjunct to standard MS cognitive evaluation, the BICAMS, and (2) extending the analysis of confrontation naming performance beyond accuracy to investigate potential insights provided by error and latency analysis.
Method
Participants
This cross-sectional study employed a sample drawn from a broader dataset collected as part of an ongoing project at the Royal Melbourne Hospital (RMH), Melbourne, Australia. All participants were referred to the Cognitive Neuroimmunology Clinic for specialist cognitive opinion. Inclusion criteria for the MS group were: (1) a diagnosis of MS, (2) aged 18 years or over, (3) English proficiency, (4) able to provide their own informed consent, (5) sufficient vision and audition to perceive test materials, and 6) no history of other neurological conditions likely to affect cognition (i.e. stroke, head injury, dementia). In addition to these broader project criteria, participants included in this study were also required to have complete data for the relevant neuropsychological measures. Age-, sex-, and education-matched controls were recruited via community snowball sampling by liaising with friends and family of patients and clinicians. Control eligibility criteria were as above, excluding criteria 1). While not a formal exclusion criterion, it is also noted that specific developmental language or learning disorders were not reported or identified in this sample. Ethics approval was obtained from the Human Research Ethics Committee of the Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne (2020.240 RMH67046), and all research was conducted in accordance with ethical standards of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki. All participants provided written informed consent.
Setting and procedures
The appointment was conducted either face-to-face at the RMH Cognitive Neuroimmunology Clinic or via telehealth using Zoom (Zoom Video Communications Incorporated, 2016). The complete assessment comprised a clinical interview, a comprehensive neuropsychological examination conducted by a neuropsychologist, and a set of self-report questionnaires relating to health, mood, and cognitive complaint. The battery was conducted over a single session and took approximately 1.5 to 2 hours to complete. Tasks such as the SYDBAT, which were not originally designed for remote delivery, were adapted into a pre-prepared presentation file that would display each stimulus item sequentially to ensure standardization across participants. For appointments conducted via Zoom, the examiner would share their screen to present these materials consistently. Demographic data were obtained from medical records for MS patients and via a pre-study online questionnaire for controls.
Measures
From the broader dataset, a subset of measures relevant to the present study were extracted, as outlined Table 1.
Table 1. Overview of relevant measures
Note. BICAMS = Brief International Cognitive Assessment for Multiple Sclerosis.
Audio analysis
Audio recordings were obtained for all participant assessments. Audio output for face-to-face sessions was recorded using a Yeti microphone or the Voice Memo application (Apple Inc., 2023). For telehealth assessments, audio output was recorded directly from the Zoom session (Zoom Video Communications Incorporated, 2016) for control participants and via the Voice Memo application for patients (Apple Inc., 2023). Recordings of the SYDBAT were extracted to undergo latency and error analysis conducted by a single-blinded researcher.
Latency extraction
The Audacityâ software (Audacity Team, 2024) was used to extract spontaneous latencies for each completed SYDBAT item for all participants. Latencies were obtained by measuring the time from a beep that corresponded with picture onset to the generation of a spontaneous response (i.e. an uncued response), excluding filler words (e.g. ‘um’ or ‘that’s a-’).
Error coding
Errors for all spontaneous responses were coded according to an error classification system (Table 2), adapted from previous error analysis guidelines (Kohn & Goodglass, Reference Kohn and Goodglass1985; Kujala et al., Reference Kujala, Portin and Ruutiainen1996; Lethlean & Murdoch, Reference Lethlean and Murdoch1994). The coding approach was discussed and agreed upon by the researcher and three clinical neuropsychologists before coding commenced. To achieve coding agreement, any ambiguous error codes were resolved via a consensus decision discussion between three clinical neuropsychologists. This applied to 96 of the 441 errors.
Table 2. Classification system for error coding of the confrontation naming tasks
Statistical analyses
The R statistical software (v4.4.0; R Core Team, 2024) was used for all analyses. More detailed descriptions of the analyses are provided in Appendix A.
Group differences: group characteristics and cognitive measure scores
Group differences for continuous sample characteristics and the BICAMS subtests were computed using a Welch’s independent samples t-test and Cohen’s d for effect size. Group differences for discrete variables were analyzed using X 2 tests of independence and phi-coefficient for effect size. For SYDBAT and BNT scores, group differences were computed using general linear models (GLM), with consult modality (face-to-face or telehealth), age, and education included as covariates. Parameters were extracted with 95% confidence intervals, using standardized beta coefficients for effect size.
Aim one: validating the SYDBAT for confrontation naming evaluation
Validation of the SYDBAT against the BNT
Spearman’s correlation coefficients (r) were computed to investigate the association between the SYDBAT and BNT scores. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were produced for the raw and standardized scores to examine diagnostic performance. The area under the curve (AUC) was extracted with 95% confidence and compared using bootstrapping. Hierarchical logistic regression models were estimated to assess additional insight into group membership (patient or control) provided by each confrontation naming measure, over and above the other. A logistic regression model was first fit with the BNT raw score as the sole predictor of diagnostic group. A second model was then fit, with the SYDBAT raw score included as an additional predictor. The difference in residual deviance of the two models was assessed to evaluate model improvement. This analysis was then repeated in reverse, with the initial model including only the SYDBAT score, followed by a second model incorporating both SYDBAT and BNT scores.
Clinical utility as an adjunct to BICAMS
To investigate the value of the SYDBAT as an adjunct to standard cognitive evaluation in MS, the concordance between the rates of impairment captured by the SYDBAT and that of the BICAMS was assessed. Patients’ cognitive status was classified as ‘cognitively impaired’ or ‘cognitively intact’ following typical BICAMS protocol (impaired = scored 1.5 SD below the standardized control mean on one or more of the three subtests; Dusankova et al., Reference Dusankova, Kalincik, Havrdova and Benedict2012). The number of patients in each cognitive status group classified as ‘language impaired’ according to the SYDBAT (i.e. 1.5 SD below the standardized control mean) was established and compared using an X 2 test of independence and phi-coefficient for effect size.
Aim two: exploring insight provided by error and latency analysis
Error analysis
Robust general linear mixed models (GLMM) were estimated using restricted maximum likelihood to investigate group differences in overall error types (semantic, phonological, visual, mis-focus, non-response, unrelated response) on the SYDBAT. Error frequency was specified as the dependent variable, while diagnostic group and error type were specified as independent variables, along with an interaction term between the two. A random intercept was specified for each participant to account for within-subjects dependence. Consult modality, age, and education were entered as covariates. Parameters were extracted with 95% confidence intervals, using partial omega squared for effect size. Simple effects analyses were conducted using GLMs to assess group differences in each error type. Parameters were extracted with 95% confidence intervals, using standardized beta coefficients for effect size. If a significant group difference was identified for semantic errors, this analysis would be repeated for the semantic error subtypes.
Latency analysis
Mean latency, standard deviation of the latency, and frequency of ‘extreme’ latencies (i.e. latencies 1.96 SDs longer than the mean latency) for all spontaneous responses, for correct spontaneous responses, and for incorrect spontaneous responses on the SYDBAT were extracted. These variables were selected to capture the typical, positively skewed response time distribution under various retrieval conditions to form a rounded latency profile. Ex-Gaussian parameters were considered, however, were not possible due to the relatively small number of items per participant, producing unstable estimates. Group differences for each variable under each response condition (e.g. mean latency of correct spontaneous responses) were assessed via GLMs. Parameters were extracted with 95% confidence intervals, using standardized beta coefficients for effect size.
Results
The final sample (n = 80) comprised 40 MS patients and 40 healthy controls. Demographic, clinical, and cognitive characteristics are outlined in Table 3. No significant group differences were found for age, gender, and years of education. A moderate significant association was found for consult modality, X 2 (1) = 5.08, p = .024, φ = 0.25, with patients more likely to be seen face-to-face than controls (Rea & Parker, Reference Rea and Parker1992). There was however no evidence of consult modality impacting performance (Appendix B). Patient scores were significantly lower than corresponding control group scores for all cognitive measures. Of note, effect sizes for SYDBAT and BNT scores between groups were large and medium, respectively (Cohen, Reference Cohen1988).
Table 3. Sample demographic, clinical, and cognitive characteristics
Note. RRMS = Relapsing Remitting Multiple Sclerosis, PPMS = Primary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis, SPMS = Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis, EDSS = Expanded Disability Status Scale (ranging 1 – 10, with higher values indicating more severe disability). SYDBAT = Sydney Language Battery (Naming Subtest). BNT = Boston Naming Test. SDMT = Symbol Digits Modality Test. CVLT-II = California Verbal Learning Test – Second Edition. BVMT-R = Brief Visuospatial Memory Test-Revised. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001. † = significance holds on false discovery rate correction. a n = 38. b n = 35.
Validating the SYDBAT for confrontation naming evaluation
Validation of the SYDBAT against the BNT
Correlation coefficients were interpreted following the conventions of Cohen (Reference Cohen1988). A large positive correlation was identified between SYDBAT and BNT, r = 0.81, p < .001. Diagnostic performance was assessed by computing ROC curves for the raw and standardized scores, as shown in Figure 1. AUC for both raw and standardized SYDBAT scores were significant, at 0.69 (95% CI [0.58, 0.80]) and 0.69 (95% CI [0.58, 0.81]), respectively. AUC for both raw and standardized BNT scores were also significant, at 0.63 (95% CI [0.51, 0.75]) and 0.62 (95% CI [0.51, 0.75]), respectively. The raw and standardized score ROC curves for two naming tests were comparable, with non-significant differences in their AUC (p = .091 and p = .082, respectively).
Figure 1. Receiver operating characteristic curves for confrontation naming scores. Note. SYDBAT = Sydney language battery (Naming subtest), BNT = Boston naming test. Dashed line represents an area under the curve of 0.5.
Hierarchical logistic regression models were estimated and model fit was compared to assess insight provided by the SYDBAT relative to the BNT. The addition of SYDBAT score significantly increased the proportion of variance explained (Table 4), indicating improved prediction of group membership (i.e. patient or control). The addition of BNT score however, did not significantly increase the proportion of variance explained (Table 5), providing no evidence for an improved prediction of group membership.
Table 4. SYDBAT improvement in group membership prediction over the BNT
Note. SYDBAT = Sydney Language Battery (Naming Subtest). BNT = Boston Naming Test. df = degrees of freedom. ∆ = change in variable. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
Table 5. BNT improvement in group membership prediction over the SYDBAT
Note. SYDBAT = Sydney Language Battery (Naming Subtest). BNT = Boston Naming Test. df = degrees of freedom. ∆ = change in variable. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
The value of the SYDBAT as an adjunct to BICAMS
Following standard BICAMS protocol (Dusankova et al., Reference Dusankova, Kalincik, Havrdova and Benedict2012), 20 patients were classified as ‘cognitively impaired,’ and 20 patients were classified as ‘cognitively intact.’ Of the 20 ‘cognitively impaired’ patients, nine (45%) were additionally classified as ‘language impaired’ according to the SYDBAT. Of the 20 ‘cognitively intact’ patients, five (25%) were incongruously identified as ‘language impaired.’ The number of ‘language impaired’ patients classified as ‘cognitively intact’ or as ‘cognitively impaired’ did not significantly differ, p = .285, φ = 0.14.
Latency analysis insight into language impairment
The mean latency, standard deviation of the latency, and frequency of ‘extreme’ latencies (i.e. latencies 1.96 SDs longer than the mean latency) for all spontaneous responses, for correct spontaneous responses, and for incorrect spontaneous responses for patients and controls on the SYDBAT are summarized in Table 6. A large significant group difference was identified for mean latency across all spontaneous responses (Cohen, Reference Cohen1988). No other significant differences were identified.
Table 6. Latencies for all, correct, and incorrect spontaneous responses on the SYDBAT
Note. SYDBAT = Sydney Language Battery (Naming Subtest). s = seconds. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001. † = significance holds on false discovery rate correction.
Inconclusive error analysis
Mean frequencies of each overall error type on the SYDBAT for each group are outlined in Table 7. The GLMM indicated a significant medium main effect for group, F(1, 12.35) = 7.84, p = .007, ωp 2 = 0.08, and a significant large main effect for error type, F(5, 1073.79) = 136.29, p < .001, ωp 2 = 0.63 (Kirk, Reference Kirk1996). The interaction effect for group and error type was additionally significant, F(5, 34.19) = 4.34, p < .001, ωp 2 = 0.04, indicating a small effect (Kirk, Reference Kirk1996). To assess group differences in each overall error type, a simple effects analysis was conducted. As outlined in Table 7, no significant group differences were identified for any overall error type.
Table 7. Overall error type frequencies on the SYDBAT
Note. SYDBAT = Sydney Language Battery (Naming Subtest).
Discussion
To date, objective characterization of single-word level language in MS has been somewhat limited due to omission of language screening in standard cognitive evaluation (Langdon et al., Reference Langdon, Amato, Boringa, Brochet, Foley, Fredrikson, Hämäläinen, Hartung, Krupp, Penner, Reder and Benedict2012), and inconsistencies in performance on existing language measures (Brandstadter et al., Reference Brandstadter, Fabian, Leavitt, Krieger, Yeshokumar, Katz Sand, Klineova, Riley, Lewis, Pelle, Lublin, Miller and Sumowski2020; Jennekens-Schinkel et al., Reference Jennekens-Schinkel, Lanser, van der Velde and Sanders1990). To address this limitation, the present study explored alternative approaches to characterizing single-word level language impairment in MS patients. Consistent with the language difficulties frequently described in the MS population (El-Wahsh et al., Reference El-Wahsh, Ballard, Kumfor and Bogaardt2020), we observed significantly poorer confrontation naming in the patient group compared to controls. The SYDBAT naming subtest total score and latency analyses demonstrated potential value in characterizing this language impairment.
Validity and clinical value of the SYDBAT
We posit that the SYDBAT is a valid and valuable tool for characterizing single-word level language functioning among MS patients. This is supported by congruent naming scores identified between the SYDBAT and ‘gold standard’ BNT, and the capacity for each of these tasks to comparably differentiate between patients and controls. The SYDBAT scores also improved group membership prediction beyond that of the BNT alone, suggesting this tool may contribute additional insights into the impairment beyond that of the current ‘gold standard.’ Such findings align with previous accounts of the shortcomings of the BNT in characterizing language in MS and its diminishing suitability in a modern population (Beattey et al., Reference Beattey, Murphy, Cornwell, Braun, Stein, Goldstein and Bender2017; Beatty et al., Reference Beatty, Goodkin, Monson and Beatty1989; Brandstadter et al., Reference Brandstadter, Fabian, Leavitt, Krieger, Yeshokumar, Katz Sand, Klineova, Riley, Lewis, Pelle, Lublin, Miller and Sumowski2020; Jennekens-Schinkel et al.,Reference Jennekens-Schinkel, Lanser, van der Velde and Sanders1990; Olivares et al., Reference Olivares, Nieto, Sánchez, Wollmann, Hernández and Barroso2005). Regardless, comparable performance alone suggests the SYDBAT may nonetheless be a valuable alternative. The measures were, at a minimum, equally effective in identifying the impairment, however, the SYDBAT achieved this characterization with a briefer 30 items compared to the 60 items of the BNT (Kaplan et al., Reference Kaplan, Goodglass and Weintraub1983; Savage et al., Reference Savage, Hsieh, Leslie, Foxe, Piguet and Hodges2013). It is acknowledged that shorter versions of the BNT do exist (Mack et al., Reference Mack, Freed, Williams and Henderson1992), however, these remain only combinations of the increasingly outdated original items (Beattey et al., Reference Beattey, Murphy, Cornwell, Braun, Stein, Goldstein and Bender2017). The SYDBAT therefore presents a brief, yet contemporary valid alternative to these existing single-word level tests.
The proposed clinical value of the SYDBAT relates to its potential use as an adjunct to standard cognitive assessment in the MS population. The present study found 25% of MS patients who were classified as ‘cognitively intact’ by the BICAMS were in fact ‘language impaired’ according to the SYDBAT. While the BICAMS does not claim to assess language, it is widely recommended as a cognitive screening tool in the MS population (Maltby et al., Reference Maltby, Lea, Ribbons, Lea, Schofield and Lechner-Scott2020). This discrepancy in the identified impairment rates highlights a critical limitation of using the BICAMS in isolation in clinical practice, as it may lead to the misclassification of language-impaired patients as cognitively intact. Under-detection of impairment not only invalidates patient concerns and difficulties but can potentially lead to missed signs of relapse and hamper informed disease management decision-making. This study therefore presents the clinical value of the SYDBAT as a brief and valid adjunct to the BICAMS battery. In the context of this clinical application, it is worth noting that an app-based version of the SYDBAT is available (Piguet, Reference Piguet2022), facilitating easier administration and scoring for clinicians. Such clinical recommendations do however remain somewhat constrained by the limited normative data available for the SYDBAT. Future research to develop appropriate normative data may therefore be considered to maximize the clinical applicability of this tool.
Insight provided by the latency analysis
Latency analysis additionally emerged as a valuable method for providing a more nuanced characterization of the language impairment in MS. Consistent with previous latency analyses (Beatty & Monson, Reference Beatty and Monson1989; De Dios Pérez et al., Reference De Dios Pérez, Cordova Luna, Cloutman, Rog, Preston and Conroy2020; Kujala et al., Reference Kujala, Portin and Ruutiainen1996), this study observed an overall delay in spontaneous responses for MS patients compared to controls. These findings extend the characterization beyond the inaccuracy identified by naming scores alone, capturing difficulties that emerge during the lexical retrieval process. These difficulties are plausibly driven by a range of underlying cognitive–linguistic mechanisms. One proposed account is a semantic access impairment at the level of lexical selection, with the longer response times reflecting a greater reliance on manualised retrieval processes which require increased effort to suppress lexical competitors (Goodglass et al., Reference Goodglass, Theurkauf and Wingfield1984; Levelt et al.,Reference Levelt, Roelofs and Meyer1999). Alternatively, the delay may reflect a general processing speed deficit, as is commonly observed in MS (Grzegorski & Losy, Reference Grzegorski and Losy2017). Regardless of the precise mechanism, the latency analysis nonetheless captures language production inefficiencies that are otherwise uncharacterized by overall naming scores alone. This study provides support for latency analysis as a useful approach to improving the characterization of single-word level language function in MS. From a practical perspective, these findings highlight potential clinical utility of incorporating latencies into naming assessments. Informally, this may entail clinicians being cognizant of longer response latencies in their patients as possible evidence of dysfunctional naming, even in the absence of an impaired accuracy score. More formal metrics may alternatively be incorporated into assessment, such as mean response times or frequency of longer latencies, as applied in naming tasks in other clinical populations (Hamberger & Seidel, Reference Hamberger and Seidel2003).
Limitations and future directions
These interpretations must be considered within the constraints of the study. The patient group was recruited from those referred to the RMH Cognitive Neuroimmunology Clinic for specialist cognitive investigation following some level of patient or clinician concern. While the prevalence of objective impairment in the sample may therefore be higher than the general MS community, the sample composition is appropriate for validating language measures by ensuring the tools are tested in the population they ultimately aim to assess.
The somewhat limited sample size must also be considered. The sample size was suitable for the validation of the SYDBAT, comparable to previous validations of this task (Janssen et al., Reference Janssen, Roelofs, van den Berg, Eikelboom, Holleman, in de Braek, Piguet, Piai and Kessels2022; Savage et al., Reference Savage, Hsieh, Leslie, Foxe, Piguet and Hodges2013). It may have however increased the likelihood of type two errors in other analyses, particularly the error analysis. While the frequency of overall error types did vary with group, no one error type significantly differed between patients and controls, including semantic errors, a previously consistent distinguishing factor in this population (De Dios Pérez et al., Reference De Dios Pérez, Cordova Luna, Cloutman, Rog, Preston and Conroy2020; Lethlean & Murdoch, Reference Lethlean and Murdoch1994). As the frequency of each error was minimal, it is reasonable to speculate that the lack of significant simple effects may be attributed to insufficient power. Future studies may therefore consider employing larger cohorts to capture a greater number of errors and yield more robust findings.
The coding process used in this error analysis may also be developed for application in future studies. This component was treated as a pilot analysis, secondary to the primary aim of validating the SYDBAT and applying a novel coding system adapted from previous literature (Kohn & Goodglass, Reference Kohn and Goodglass1985; Kujala et al., Reference Kujala, Portin and Ruutiainen1996; Lethlean & Murdoch, Reference Lethlean and Murdoch1994). The methodology supported strong internal consistency, with a single blinded researcher ensuring consistent application of the coding framework, and resolution of all ambiguous responses through consensus discussion between three clinical neuropsychologists promoting reliable coding agreement. A key limitation, however, is that inter-rater reliability could not be formally calculated. Future studies may consider involving multiple independent coders to enable such estimation and strengthen the robustness of the findings.
The limited evaluation of language must also be acknowledged. This study exclusively examined visual confrontation naming and thereby omits other linguistic functions that may be additionally affected. Discourse analyses, which capture higher-level linguistic features such as fluency, cohesion, and coherence (D’Aprano et al., Reference D’Aprano, Malpas, Roberts and Saling2024), may be a particularly pertinent approach to consider in future research. As a diffuse neurological condition (Thompson et al., Reference Thompson, Banwell, Barkhof, Carroll, Coetzee, Comi, Correale, Fazekas, Filippi, Freedman, Fujihara, Galetta, Hartung, Kappos, Lublin, Marrie, Miller, Miller, Montalban and Cohen2018), it is reasonable to speculate that higher-level language, which relies upon widely distributed cognitive processes (Mesulam, Reference Mesulam1990), may be fundamentally compromised and warrant assessment in MS. Such approaches are less clinically applicable due to their time and expertise demands, though may be valuable in enhancing theoretical understanding and contributing to a more complete characterization of language function in MS.
Conclusions
This study presents the SYDBAT naming subtest and latency analysis as valuable adjunct methods for assessing single-word level language in the MS population. The study offers clinicians a broader toolkit to characterize language functioning and supplement existing cognitive batteries, namely the BICAMS. This represents a positive step toward increased accuracy and complete assessment, informing patient care in this clinical population. The characterization provided by these approaches is, however, by no means exhaustive, and continued efforts to improve the understanding of language function in MS presents an important avenue for future research.
Supplementary material
The supplementary material for this article can be found at https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617725101513.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the patients who were referred to the Royal Melbourne Hospital Cognitive Neuroimmunology Clinic and took the time to participate in this study. We would also like to extend this thanks to all healthy control participants who additionally took part in this study. Finally, we acknowledge Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people of the unceded land on which we work, learn, and live: we pay respect to Elders past, present, and future, and acknowledge the importance of Indigenous knowledge at The University of Melbourne.
Author contributions
A.H: Writing – original draft preparation (lead); Writing - review, and editing (equal); Data curation (equal); Formal analysis (supporting)
S.R: Conceptualization (equal); Methodology (equal); Investigation (lead); Data curation (equal); Writing - review, and editing (equal); Supervision (equal)
C.B.M: Conceptualization (equal); Methodology (equal); Formal analysis (lead); Writing - review, and editing (equal); Supervision (equal)
G.R: Conceptualization (equal); Methodology (equal); Writing - review, and editing (equal); Supervision (equal)
F.D: Conceptualization (equal); Methodology (equal); Writing - review, and editing (equal); Supervision (lead)
Funding statement
Funding relevant to G.R. includes a Medical Research Future Fund (MRFF) Australian Epilepsy Research Fund grant for project funding as well as salary support in part from an Australian National Health & Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Investigator grant (APP2008737).
Competing interests
The authors declare none.
Ethical standard
The study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne (2020.240 RMH67046), and all research was conducted in accordance with ethical standards of the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki. All participants provided written informed consent prior to participating. Data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request
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