The beginnings of ancient history too often contain a large admixture of legendary or fabulous ingredients; and the difficulty of discriminating between truth and fiction is greatly increased in those cases where the annalist derives his information from statements or documents conveyed in a language with which he is imperfectly acquainted. The critical historian is obliged to content himself with conjectures, more or less arbitrary, unless he can fall back upon authentic monumental records which he is enabled to interpret. This solid basis has at last been supplied, in the case of early Persian history, by the inscriptions which Colonel Rawlinson has deciphered and explained, and I propose in the following paper to make these memorials available for the correction of a curious tale respecting the great Darius.

In Josephus we find the following account of the sources of the Jordan, and the Phiala lake: “The head of this celebrated river [the Jordan] has been thought to bo Panion; but in truth it passes hither underground; and the source of it is Phiala, an hundred and twenty furlongs [stadia] from Cæsarea [Philippi], a little on the right hand, and not much out of the way to Trachonitis. It is called Phiala (that is, the Vial) from the round figure of it; and its water stands always at a stay, the basin being brimful, without either shrinking or overflowing. The first discovery of this secret was from Philip, the Tetrarch of Trachonitis, by casting straws into Phiala, that came out again at Panion, which, till that time, was taken for the head of the Jordan. This river, thus, as to appearance, taking its origin from the Cave of Panion, afterwards crosses the bogs and fens of the lake Semechonitis; and after a course of an hundred and twenty furlongs farther, passes under the city of Julias [or Bethsaida], and so over the lake Genezareth; and then running a long way through a wilderness or desert, it empties itself at last into the lake Asphaltitis, or the Dead Sea.”

Strabo describes Caranus as the maritime arsenal of Aradus, between Balanea and Enhydra, and Pococke recognises it in “the place to which boats come from the isle of Ruad, which is about half a mile to the N. of the present wall of Tortosa; but the port for shipping,” he continues, “is doubtless where it is now—between the island and the continent.” Had this learned traveller pursued his investigations a little farther up the sea-coast to the N. he would have discovered the real site of Carauus, in a port and adjacent ruins, about a mile northerly from the landing-place of which he speaks. These ruins are called to this day, by the Arabs, Caranún a corruption of the Greek Καρύνος or, what is possible, the Greek name might have been a corruption of the more ancient and original Syrian appellation, to which the Arabs have returned, as they have done in the case of the adjacent island of Ruád, the Arvad or Arphad of Scripture, and which the Greeks converted into Arados, 'Αράδος. The present Arabic name, with the article, which is invariably used with it, would be still nearer the ancient name, for instance, Ar Ruád There are many cases in which the Arabs have rejected the names imposed by their Grecian and Roman conquerors on their cities, and returned to the original ones; as in Beyrút, Acca, Bániás, Tidmúr, for Colonia Julia Felix, Ptolemais, Csesarea Philippi, Palmyra, and mauy others. Emésa was a corruption for Homs, &c.

In a letter received on the 1st March last from Major Kittoe, engaged in antiquarian researches under the Bengal Government, he informed me that in excavating the mound constituting the rain of the great Buddhist temple of Sárnáth at Benares, he had turned up some scores of miniature chaityas in baked clay, the base of many of them being impressed with an inscription in the carly Deva Nágarí charecters in a seal form. Some of the chaityas being broken transversely at the base, it was found that an independent seal with an inscription, not in itaglio, but in cameo, was enclosed in the base; and that the seal was first prepared and hardened, and the chaitya then fashioned round it while the clay was plastic, was manifest by the raised letters of the seal having imbedded themselves in the clay, and leaving fac-similes of their forms. Major Kittee readily discovered that the seals or stamps comprised the Buddhist religious dogma, or confession of faith, “Ye dhama,” &e.or “Ye dharma,” &c., as it happened to be in Páli or Sanskrit, and he refers their date from the form of the Deva Nágarí letters to the early part of the eleventh century; but why these chaityas, the first of the kind met with, stamped with the confession of faith or containing a seal with the dogma in relief letters upon it should have been lodged with in the temple, Major Kittoe does not discuss. As the discovery of the chaityas is new in antiquarian research in India, and as there are certain circumstances connected with this confession of faith being met with in different parts of India in mongrel Sanskrit, I have thought that a drawing of a chaitya and of the enclosed seal, together with a few remarks upon the confession of faith, might be acceptable for reference in the Journal of the Society.

The place used as the execution – ground at Canton is in the southern suburbs, about midway between the forts known to foreigners as the Dutch and French “Follies.” It is, however, some distance back from the river, being about halfway between the southern wall of the city, running parallel to the river, and the latter; distant from each 120 or 130 yards in a straight line. There is no street leading directly to it either from the river or the city. There is a dense population all around, composed, towards the north and west, of the inmates ef shops and dwellings, respectable in its immediate neighbourhood, and getting more wealthy as the foreign factories (distant about a mile) are approached. To the south and east the suburb is, generally speaking, poor, inhabited by low and even criminal classes. The execution-ground itself is a short thoroughfare or lane, running north and south, about fifty yards in length, eight yards in breadth at its northern end, and gradually narrowing to five yards at its southern extremity, where the projection of a house-corner reduces it to a mere passage of one yard and a half in width, and five in length. At the end of this latter is a high strong door, closed and guarded during executions. The eastern side of the ground is bounded in its whole length by a dead brick wall, of about twelve feet high, forming the back of some dwellings or small warehouses.

More than a quarter of a century has elapsed since Wilhelm von Humboldt, in the introduction to his immortal work Ueber die Kawi Sprache, impressed upon orientalists the high philological importance of the Indo-Chinese dialects, from an enlightened study of which that eminent scholar anticipated results of the highest value for the illustration of the philosophy of language in general. Since the death of that illustrious and lamented writer, although the extension of our political and commercial intercourse, and the untiring zeal of the Christian missionary among the tribes of the eastern peninsula have given rise to many excellent treatises upon their various dialects, among which I may mention in particular the admirable works of my friend Colonel Low, the Rev. F. Mason, and Captain Latter; yet there still seems wanting a comprehensive and philosophical survey of these tongues, not merely with reference to their own internal structure and the singular mental idiosyncrasies of which these peculiarities are the exponents, but with reference to the light they throw upon languages in general, even upon those from which they most widely diverge, and with which their connection is indeed very faint and indistinct. For while all the other nations of the earth are being gradually associated into one family by their linguistic affinities, and even the long-silent Egyptian has from many an ancient tomb and many, a mysterious epigraph put forth his claim to relationship with the Semitic stock, little or nothing has been done towards bridging over the cheerless gulf that still divorces philologically the simple-minded speakers of the intonated monosyllabic tongues from their Indo-Germanic brethren, whose copious and highly-polished languages constitute at once the proudest monument and the most efficient instrument of their civilization.

[The following paper upon the present state of Buddhism in China, by the late Dr. Gutzlaff, was drawn up at my request, and was received by me scarcely a fortnight before the intelligence of his death arrived. He appears to picture the practice of Buddhism as it now meets the eye in China, rather than as inculcated in the precepts of its founder; and in consequence both clergy and laity testify to the corruptions which have gradually disfigured its primitive character. Dr. Gutzlaff's very strong language with respect to the ignorance, selfish habits, chicanery, mendacity, mendicancy, and idleness of the priesthood (mendicancy and contemplation, however, being ordinances of Buddhism), contrasted with his conflicting statements that the priesthood is generally despised yet popular, may have been influenced by his religious enthusiasm, which, although he had ceased to labour as a missionary, manifested itself to the last in his connexion with the Chinese Christian Union. Dr. GutzlafT does not give much that is new with respect to Buddhism, but the paper is interesting as a resumé, and affords corroborative evidence to the writings of others. His account of the Páli works in Chinese characters discourages us from the expectation of learning much from them; but in case a few of them conld be transcribed according to the sounds into some known character, they would become legible to a good Páli scholar. But he says there are a few works in a character originally used for writing Páli, and they may be considered faithful transcripts of the earliest writings of Buddhism.

The monster bulls, lions, and other winged figures found at Nineveh,-which have lately been erected in the new Hall of the British Museum, naturally excite the curiosity as well as the admiration of the public—curiosity to learn the meaning of these colossal myths of a nation which flourished some 3000 years ago, at the earliest dawn of art, and before the period of authentic history. It is desireable, therefore, that some attempt should be made to solve the problem.

The subject of Dreams has invited the inquiry of science in many ages and countries. A phenomenon of such frequent occurrence in connection with one of the ordinary functions of the animal economy could not fail to interest men of all classes and temperaments. To develop its theory as a mechanical working of the brain in sleep, or a secret energy of the mind during the temporary inaction of the bodily powers, equally forms a part of physics and of metaphysics; but, further than this, the association of dreams with objects and events having no immediate affinity with the waking thoughts, pursuits, or interests of the dreamer, thus seeming to indicate a sense of things to come, has led inquirers, with more or less of superstitious belief, to rely upon this as a species of foreknowledge within the reach of all, even of ungifted persons. Mankind, naturally anxious for direction in their worldly undertakings beyond the limits of human wisdom, studied every mode of possessing that information which might be supposed attainable by mysterious agency, and, in addition to the less permissible means of sorcery and divination, have endeavoured to obtain the desired instruction from observation of their sleeping thoughts, and even to reduce this process to a system.

In tracing back the orign of nations beyond the period embraced by the special histories of Greece and Rome, we reach the interval in universal history, during which four great nations are known to have floursihed, and to have extended their relations, political, millitary, or commercial, over the various regions of the globe. These are the races of India, China, Phœnicia, and Egypt. The two latter have long ceased to exist as distinct nations; or rather have been absorbed in other nationalities; whilst the two former, beside constituting the most numerous portion of the human race, have continued their ethnical existence to the present time. That other races of men inhabited the countries which have since been occupied and peopled by these races anterior to them may be considered certain; but no data exist from which it can be inferred that any considerable monarchy, or empire, was ever founded in any of these countries, prior to the clear, national establishment of those races, respectively, in India, and Egypt. The three former are the nations of Asia, who, whether by the antiquity of the civilization attributed to them, or the permanent influence they have exerted in the history of mankind, must be regarded by modern writers as the earliest races that have established themselves as great nations, whose peculiar languages and institutions mark them as the most distinct divisions of the human species, from whose records all researches in general history and ethnology must commence. Of the Chinese and the Phoenicians I shall have as little to remark as of the Egyptians.

In the lecture on the Vedas which I read during our last session I had occasion to notice some very remarkable passages in one of the Suktas, or Hymns of the Bich, relating to the disposal of the dead, and especially to the burning of widows, for which the hymn in question was always cited as authority. I stated then that the text quoted for that purpose had a totally different tendency, and that there was some reason to doubt if it was the ancient practice of the Hindus to burn their dead at all, quoting texts which seemed to enjoin burying, not burning. I added, however, that I had not had time to consider the passages with that care which they required, and that I communicated only the results of my first impressions. I have since examined the passages more deliberately, and propose now to offer to the Society the conclusions which I have deliberately formed; namely, that the text of the Rig Veda cited as authority for the burning of widows enjoins the very contrary, and directs them to remain in the world, and that, although the expressions relating to the disposal of the dead are somewhat equivocal, yet it seems most probable, upon a comparison with other texts aiid authorities, that the corpse was burned, although the ashes and bones were afterwards buried.

Among the relics brought home by Mr. Layard, and deposited in the British Museum, the visitors to our national repository may notice a series of bronze lions, of good workmanship and graduated magnitude, from one to several inches in length,—the largest weighing above 40 lbs., the smallest barely 2 oz. There are also several marble ducks, with cuneiform inscriptions upon them, of Babylonian rather than Assyrian characters. These appear to have been the commercial weights used by the people of Assyria and Babylonia. They were distinguished by cuneiform inscriptions on the back, which must have been originally well engraved, although they are now a good deal defaced, and in some cases so much obliterated as to leave scarcely the slightest trace.

Much has been written, much has been said in various places, and amongst them in this Society, about Buddha, and the religious system which bears his name, yet it may be suspected that the notions which have been entertained and propagated, in many particulars relating to both the history and the doctrines, have been adopted upon insufficient information and somewhat prematurely disseminated. Very copious additions, and those of a highly authentic character, have been, but very recently, made to the stock of materials which we heretofore possessed, and there has scarcely yet been sufficient time for their deliberate examination. Copious also and authentic as they are, they are still incomplete, and much remains for Oriental scholars to accomplish before it can be said that the materials for such a history of Buddha as shall command the assent of all who study the subject, have been conclusively provided. I have, therefore, no purpose of proposing to you in the views I am about to take, that you should consider them as final; my only intention is to bring the subject before you as it stands at present, with some of that additional elucidation which is derivable from the many valuable publications that have recently appeared, and particularly from the learned and authentic investigations of the late Eugene Burnouf, the only scholar as yet who has combined a knowledge of Sanscrit with that of Pali and Tibetan, and has been equally familiar with the Buddhist authorities of the north and south of India: unfortunately he has been lost to us before he had gone through the wide circuit of research which he had contemplated, and which he only was competent to have traversed; and although he has accomplished more than any other scholar, more than it would seem possible for any human ability and industry to have achieved, it is to be deeply and for ever regretted that his life was not spared to have effected all he had intended, and for which he was collecting, and had collected, many valuable and abundant materials.

The following notes upon the Vegetable Productions of the island of Ceylon have been thrown together in the hope that, although devoid of any originality, they may be deemed worthy the honour of a reading by this Society. The writer has been led to draw up this paper chiefly from the many inquiries made of him, as the Commissioner for Ceylon at the Great Exhibition, in reference to the produce of that colony. It would appear that whilst the larger articles of coffee and cinnamon are well enough known as staples of the Ceylon trade, but few have any knowledge of the less prominent produce of the island, more especially of those articles which are cultivated for local nse only, or for export to the neighbouring Indian states.

Mankind had probably no sooner taken to the use of oysters as food, than pearls were discovered, and at no period could they be so rude as not to prize the beautiful animal gem; hence, in the most ancient records which have come down to us, we find the pearl enumerated amongst precious articles. In China, so early as twentytwo and a half centuries before our era, pearls are enumerated as tribute or tax; and, at a later period, they are mentioned in the Rh-'ya (the most ancient of dictionaries, compiled more than ten centuries before our era) as precious products of the western part of the empire. They are also mentioned as ornaments, as amulets against fire, &c.

Those who chance to sojourn in the land of the Pharaohs longer than tha ordinary run of travellers, and roam about the streets and environs of its large towns, can hardly fail to notice the strange appearance of certain females, whose features at once distinguish them from the ordinary Fellah Arabs and Copts of the country. In dress they differ little from the common Fellah females, the dark blue cotton tob being common to both; but they seldom wear the shintiyan (drawers), and are remarkable for going abroad without the burka, or veil. With the skin of a gazelle, or that of a sheep, thrown over their shoulders, they frequent the bazars and principal thoroughfares of the great towns, with unveiled faces bronzed by exposure, or stroll from village to village, occasionally calling out, in Arabic, in piercing but not unpleasing tones: “Come, ye that desire to foresee your destiny! the past and the future shall be revealed unto you;” or in shorter phrases, such as “Come and see your fortunes!” (Taali, taali, shuft el bakkt), &c.

It is alleged that the invention of a language of so much character and grammatical peculiarity as the Zend is an impossibility, as may be proved by reference to the fictitious Formosan language, and that of the Ásmání Zabán of the Desátír. But the analogy does not hold. These pseudo tongues are the products of pure imagination; both unscrupulous inventions; the execution of the last, clumsy and open to instant detection. But the artificial construction of Zend out of Sanskrit materials (allowing for the deception of the act) proceeded on, and was effected in, a very different manner. A real language, with which the operators were well acquainted (see what Burnouf says of the mobed Neriosingh), was to be taken in hand; the work was facilitated by using an alphabet—that of old Persian—corresponding, in its employment of distinct characters for the short vowels, with that of Sanskrit; the business was skilfully performed, and the knowledge of Sanskrit is so successfully applied, as to complete the fabrication of a language in which Sir William Jones, to his surprise, found six words of pure Sanskrit out of ten of the Zend text, with some of its inflexions formed by the rules of the “Vyákaran.” Dr. Wilson observes that Zend shows an approach to Gujarátí idiom and Gujarátí corruption of Sanskrit, which awakened his suspicion. Nevertheless he thinks that none of the exiled and depressed Pársí priests in India could be supposed to have had the ability to invent that language, abounding as it does in analogies with other tongues, but overlooking the fact of Sanskrit being well known among them and used for translations (though the Sanskrit of these translations cannot be called classical) more than three hundred years ago.

When Sir John Bowring was on the eve of leaving this country for China, he expressed that willingness which might have been expected from his literary and liberal character, to promote any objects of inquiry which the Royal Asiatic Society might desire to have set on foot. There was no time for any communication with the Society, but I took advantage of the opportunity to suggest the desirableness of endeavouring to ascertain the existence of any of the books which were carried from India to China by Buddhist missionaries, in such numbers, during the first six or seven centuries of the Christian era, availing myself of the details furnished on this head by M. Julien, in his life of Hiouen Thsang. The suggestion has been most zealously acted upon by Sir John; and I have the pleasure to lay before the Society some of the results.

Le royaume de Tse-kia (Tchêka) a environ dix mille lis de tour. A l'est, il s'appuie star la rivière Pi-po-che (Vipâçâ); à l'ouest, il est voisin du fleuve Sin-tou (Sindh-Indus). La circonférence de la capitale est d'environ vingt lis. Le sol convient au riz, et produit beaucoup de bled tardif. On en tire de l'or, de l'argent, du Teou-chi (cuivre jaune), du cuivre (rouge), et du fer. Le climat est très-chaud, et l'air est souvent troublé par des tourbillons de vent. Les habitants sont d'un caractère violent et emporté, et leur langage est bas et grossier. Ils s'habillent avec des étoffes d'une blancheur éclatante qu'on appelle Kiao-che-ye (Kâuçêya-soie), et portent des vêtements rouges comme le soleil levant, &c. Peu d'entre eux croient à la loi du Bouddha; la multitude adore les esprits du ciel. Il y a dix kia-lan (Sañghârâmas), et plusieurs centaines de temples des dieux (Dêvâlayas).