Hostname: page-component-6766d58669-h8lrw Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-05-23T14:34:31.268Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Glossing and vocabulary learning

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 September 2021

Frank Boers
Frank Boers*
Affiliation:
The University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
*
*Corresponding author. Email: fboers@uwo.ca
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article offers a critical review of research on the use of glossing and its contribution to second language (L2) vocabulary acquisition. Discussion topics include the complexity of estimating the effectiveness of glossing relative to reading non-glossed texts, the quest for optimal implementations of glossing, issues of ecological validity, and ambiguity around the nature of vocabulary learning from glosses. The general conclusion is that, despite the substantial number of research studies on this subject, many questions remain to which only tentative and provisional answers are currently available. This is partly owing to the wide diversity in research designs across studies and the lack of transparency of many research reports. Suggestions are made for further research on glossing with a view to enabling future systematic reviews to produce more nuanced answers and more informed recommendations for the design of L2 reading materials.

Information

Type
State-of-the-Art Article
Information
Language Teaching , Volume 55 , Issue 1 , January 2022 , pp. 1 - 23
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Abraham, L. B. (2007). Second language reading comprehension and vocabulary learning with multimedia. Hispania, 90(1), 98–109. https://doi.org/10.2307/20063468Google Scholar
Abraham, L. B. (2008). Computer-mediated glosses in second language reading comprehension and vocabulary learning: A meta-analysis. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 21(3), 199–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588220802090246CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Acha, J. (2009). The effectiveness of multimedia programmes in children's vocabulary learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(1), 23–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00800.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aizawa, K. (1998). Incidental vocabulary learning through reading: Guessing exercises, glossing or accessing dictionaries? The Bulletin of the Kanto-Koshin-Etsu English Language Education Society, 12, 79–94. https://doi.org/10.20806/katejo.12.0_79Google Scholar
Akbulut, Y. (2007). Effects of multimedia annotations on incidental vocabulary learning and reading comprehension of advanced learners of English as a foreign language. Instructional Science, 35(6), 499–517. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-007-9016-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Al-Seghayer, K. (2001). The effect of multimedia annotation modes on L2 vocabulary acquisition: A comparative study. Language Learning & Technology, 5(1), 202–232.Google Scholar
Arpaci, D. (2016). The effects of accessing L1 versus L2 definitional glosses on L2 learners’ reading comprehension and vocabulary learning. Eurasian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 2(1), 15–29. https://doi.org/10.32601/ejal.460988CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Azari, F., Abdullah, F. S., Heng, C. S., & Hoon, T. B. (2012). Effects of glosses on vocabulary gain and retention among tertiary level EFL learners. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED533228Google Scholar
Barcroft, J. (2007). Effects of opportunities for word retrieval during second language vocabulary learning. Language Learning, 57(1), 35–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00398.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barcroft, J. (2015). Can retrieval opportunities increase vocabulary learning during reading? Foreign Language Annals, 48(2), 236–249. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12139CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ben Salem, E. (2006). The influence of electronic glosses on word retention and reading comprehension with Spanish language learners. PhD dissertation. Kansas University.Google Scholar
Bensoussan, M., & Laufer, B. (1984). Lexical guessing in context in EFL reading comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading, 7(1), 15–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.1984.tb00252.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernhardt, E. B. (2010). Understanding advanced second language reading. Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boers, F. (2000). Enhancing metaphoric awareness in specialised reading. English for Specific Purposes, 19(2), 137–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0889-4906(98)00017-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boers, F. (2021). Evaluating second language vocabulary and grammar instruction: A synthesis of the research on teaching words, phrases, and patterns. Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boers, F., Bryfonski, L., Faez, F., & McKay, T. (2020). A call for cautious interpretation of meta-analytic reviews. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 43(1), 2–24. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263120000327CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boers, F., Dang, T. C. T., & Strong, B. (2017). Comparing the effectiveness of phrase-focused exercises. A partial replication of Boers, Demecheleer, Coxhead, and Webb (2014). Language Teaching Research, 21(3), 362–280. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168816651464CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boers, F., Warren, P., He, L., & Deconinck, J. (2017). Does adding pictures to glosses enhance vocabulary uptake from reading? System, 66, 113–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2017.03.017CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowles, M. A. (2004). L2 glossing: To CALL or not to CALL. Hispania, 87(3), 541–552. https://doi.org/10.2307/20063060CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheng, Y.-H., & Good, R. L. (2009). L1 glosses: Effects on EFL learners’ reading comprehension and vocabulary retention. Reading in a Foreign Language, 21(2), 119–142.Google Scholar
Chun, D., & Plass, J. L. (1996). Effects of multimedia annotations on vocabulary acquisition. Modern Language Journal, 80(2), 183–198. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1996.tb01159.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, J. N. (1989). Facilitating effects of marginal glosses on foreign language reading. Modern Language Journal, 73(1), 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1989.tb05308.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Day, R. R., Omura, C., & Hiramatsu, M. (1991). Incidental EFL vocabulary learning and reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 7(2), 541–551.Google Scholar
De Ridder, I. (2002). Visible or invisible links: Does the highlighting of hyperlinks affect incidental vocabulary learning, text comprehension, and the reading process? Language Learning & Technology, 6(1), 123–146.Google Scholar
Elgort, I. (2017). Incorrect inferences and contextual word learning in English as a second language. Journal of the European Second Language Association, 1(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.22599/jesla.3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elgort, I., Beliaeva, N., & Boers, F. (2020). Contextual word learning in the first and second language: Definition placement and interference error effects on declarative and non-declarative knowledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 42(1), 7–32. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263119000561CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elgort, I., & Warren, P. (2014). L2 vocabulary learning from reading: Explicit and tacit lexical knowledge and the role of learner and item variables. Language Learning, 64(2), 365–414. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12052CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ertürk, ZÖ. (2016). The effect of glossing on EFL learners’ incidental vocabulary learning in reading. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 232, 373–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.052Google Scholar
Farvardin, M. T., & Biria, R. (2012). The impact of gloss types on Iranian EFL students’ reading comprehension and lexical retention. International Journal of Instruction, 5(1), 99–114.Google Scholar
Gan, X. (2014). Study on the effects of gloss type on Chinese EFL learners’ incidental vocabulary acquisition. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(6), 1251–1256. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.4.6.1251-1256CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gettys, S., Imhof, L. A., & Kautz, J. O. (2001). Computer-assisted reading: The effect of glossing format on comprehension and vocabulary retention. Foreign Language Annals, 34(2), 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.2001.tb02815.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Godfroid, A., Ahn, J., Choi, I., Ballard, L., Cui, Y., Johnston, S., Lee, S., Sarkar, A., & Yoon, H.-J. (2018). Incidental vocabulary learning in a natural reading context: An eye-tracking study. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 21(3), 563–584. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728917000219CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Godfroid, A., Boers, F., & Housen, A. (2013). An eye for words: Gauging the role of attention in L2 vocabulary acquisition by means of eye-tracking. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35(3), 483–517. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263113000119CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Godfroid, A., & Schmidtke, J. (2013). What do eye movements tell us about awareness? A triangulation of eye-movement data, verbal reports and vocabulary learning scores. In Bergsleithner, J. M., Frota, S. N., & Yoshioka, J. K. (Eds.), Noticing and second language acquisition: Studies in honour of Richard Schmidt (pp. 183–205). University of Hawai'i.Google Scholar
Godfroid, A., & Spino, L. A. (2015). Reconceptualizing reactivity of think-alouds and eye tracking: Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence. Language Learning, 65(4), 896–928. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12136CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Godwin-Jones, R. (2018). Contextualized vocabulary learning. Language Learning & Technology, 22(3), 1–19.Google Scholar
Holley, F. M., & King, J. K. (1971). Vocabulary glosses in foreign language reading materials. Language Learning, 21(2), 213–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1971.tb00060.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horst, M., Cobb, T., & Meara, P. (1998). Beyond A Clockwork Orange: Acquiring second language vocabulary through reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 11(2), 207–223.Google Scholar
Hu, H.-C. M., & Nation, P. (2000). Unknown vocabulary density and reading comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language, 13(1), 403–430.Google Scholar
Huang, L.-L., & Lin, C.-C. (2014). Three approaches to glossing and their effects on vocabulary learning. System, 44, 127–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2014.03.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulstijn, J. H. (1992). Retention of inferred and given word meanings: Experiments in incidental vocabulary learning. In Arnaud, P. J. L., & Bejoint, H. (Eds.), Vocabulary and applied linguistics (pp. 113–125). Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulstijn, J. H. (2003). Incidental and intentional learning. In Doughty, C., & Long, M. (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 349–381). Blackwell Publishing.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulstijn, J. H., Hollander, M., & Greidanus, T. (1996). Incidental vocabulary learning by advanced foreign language students: The influence of marginal glosses, dictionary use, and reoccurrence of unknown words. Modern Language Journal, 80(3), 327–339. https://doi.org/10.2307/329439CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, G. M. (1994). What lurks in the margin: Use of vocabulary glosses as a strategy in second language reading. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 5(1), 115–137. https://doi.org/10.5070/L451005174CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, G. M., Dufon, P., & Hong, F. C. (1994). L1 and L2 vocabulary glosses in L2 reading passages: Their effectiveness for increasing comprehension and vocabulary knowledge. Journal of Research in Reading, 17(1), 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.1994.tb00049.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, L. C., & Plass, J. L. (2002). Supporting listening comprehension and vocabulary acquisition in French with multimedia annotations. Modern Language Journal, 86(4), 546–561. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4781.00160CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jung, J. (2016). Effects of glosses on learning of L2 grammar and vocabulary. Language Teaching Research, 20(1), 92–112. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168815571151CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jung, J. (2020). The impact of glossing and reading activity manipulation on learning of L2 lexico-grammatical and lexical items. Language Teaching Research, Online First. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820911198CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jung, J., & Révész, A. (2018). The effects of reading activity characteristics on L2 reading processes and noticing of glossed constructions. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40(4), 755–780. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263118000165CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kang, H., Kweon, S.-O., & Choi, S. (2020). Using eye-tracking to examine the role of first and second language glosses. Language Teaching Research, Online First. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820928567CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khezrlou, S., Ellis, R., & Sadeghi, K. (2017). Effects of computer-assisted glosses on EFL learners’ vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension in three learning conditions. System, 65, 104–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2017.01.009CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, H. S., Lee, J. H., & Lee, H. (2020). The relative effects of L1 and L2 glosses on L2 learning: A meta-analysis. Language Teaching Research, Online First. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820981394CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knight, S. (1994). Dictionary use while reading: The effects on comprehension and vocabulary acquisition for learners of different verbal abilities. Modern Language Journal, 78(3), 285–299. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1994.tb02043.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ko, H. M. (1995). Glossing in incidental and intentional learning of foreign language vocabulary and reading. University of Hawai'i Working Papers in ESL, 13(2), 49–94.Google Scholar
Ko, M. H. (2012). Glossing and second language vocabulary learning. TESOL Quarterly, 46(1), 56–79. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koda, K. (2005). Insights into second language reading: A cross-linguistic approach. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kost, C. R., Foss, P., & Lenzini, J. J. (1999). Textual and pictorial glosses: Effectiveness on incidental vocabulary growth when reading in a foreign language. Foreign Language Annals, 32(1), 89–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.1999.tb02378.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laufer, B. (2020). Lexical coverages, inferencing unknown words and reading comprehension: How are they related? TESOL Quarterly, 54(4), 1076–1085. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.3004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laufer, B., & Hulstijn, J. H. (2001). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a second language: The construct of task-induced involvement. Applied Linguistics, 22(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/22.1.1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laufer, B., & Ravenhorst-Kalovski, G. C. (2010). Lexical threshold revisited: Lexical text coverage, learners’ vocabulary size and reading comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language, 22(1), 15–30.Google Scholar
Laufer, B., & Sim, D. D. (1985). Taking the easy way out: Non-use and misuse of contextual clues in EFL reading comprehension. English Teaching Forum, 18(2), 405–411.Google Scholar
Lee, H., Lee, H., & Lee, J. H. (2016). Evaluation of electronic and paper textual glosses on second language vocabulary learning and reading comprehension. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 25(4), 499–507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-015-0270-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, H., Warschauer, M., & Lee, J. H. (2017). The effects of concordance-based electronic glosses on L2 vocabulary learning. Language Learning & Technology, 21(2), 32–51.Google Scholar
Lomicka, L. (1998). To gloss or not to gloss: An investigation of reading comprehension online. Language Learning & Technology, 1(2), 41–50.Google Scholar
Luppescu, S., & Day, R. R. (1993). Reading, dictionaries, and vocabulary learning. Language Learning, 43(2), 263–279. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1992.tb00717.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsden, E., & Kasprowicz, R. (2017). Foreign language educators’ exposure to research: Reported experiences, exposure via citations, and a proposal for action. Modern Language Journal, 101(4), 613–642. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12426Google Scholar
Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia learning (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. W. (1992). The instructive animation: Helping students build connections between words and pictures in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(4), 444–452. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.444CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayer, R. E., & Gallini, J. K. (1990). When is an illustration worth ten thousand words? Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(4), 715–726. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.82.4.715CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitarai, J., & Aizawa, K. (1999). The effects of different types of glosses in vocabulary learning and reading comprehension. ARELE: Annual Review of English Language Education in Japan, 10, 73–82. https://doi.org/10.20581/arele.10.0_73Google Scholar
Miyasako, N. (2002). Does text-glossing have any effects on incidental vocabulary learning through reading for Japanese senior high school students? Language Education & Technology, 39, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.24539/let.39.0_1Google Scholar
Mondria, J. (2003). The effects of inferring, verifying, and memorizing on the retention of L2 word meanings: An experimental comparison of the “meaning-inferred method” and the “meaning-given method.”. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 25(4), 473–499. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263103000202CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montero Perez, M., Peters, E., & Desmet, P. (2018). Vocabulary learning through viewing video: The effect of two enhancement techniques. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 31(1–2), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2017.1375960CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moradan, A., & Vafaei, M. (2016). The effect of glosses on incidental vocabulary learning of Iranian EFL learners. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 5(6), 34–42. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.5n.6p.34Google Scholar
Na, L., & Nation, I. S. P. (1985). Factors affecting guessing vocabulary in context. RELC Journal, 16(1), 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/003368828501600103Google Scholar
Nagata, N. (1999). The effectiveness of computer-assisted interactive glosses. Foreign Language Annals, 32(4), 469–479. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.1999.tb00876.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nassaji, H. (2003). L2 vocabulary learning from context: Strategies, knowledge sources, and their relationship with success in L2 lexical inferencing. TESOL Quarterly, 37(4), 645–670. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588216CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nation, I. S. P. (2013). Learning vocabulary in another language (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ouyang, J., Huang, L., & Jiang, J. (2020). The effects of glossing on incidental vocabulary learning during second language reading: Based on an eye-tracking study. Journal of Research in Reading, 43(4), 496–515. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12326CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Öztürk, M. S., & Yorgancı, M. (2017). Effects of L1 and L2 glosses on incidental vocabulary learning of EFL prep students. International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, 12(6), 635–656. http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.11432Google Scholar
Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pellicer-Sánchez, A. (2016). Incidental L2 vocabulary acquisition from and while reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38(1), 97–130. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263115000224CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peters, E., Hulstijn, J. H., Sercu, L., & Lutjeharms, M. (2009). Learning L2 German vocabulary through reading: The effect of three enhancement techniques compared. Language Learning, 59(1), 113–151. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2009.00502.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pitts, M., White, H., & Krashen, S. (1989). Acquiring second language vocabulary through reading: A replication of the Clockwork Orange study using second language acquirers. Reading in a Foreign Language, 5(2), 271–275.Google Scholar
Plass, J. L., Chun, D. M., Mayer, R. E., & Leutner, D. (1998). Supporting visual and verbal learning preferences in a second-language multimedia learning environment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1), 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.90.1.25CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plass, J. L., Chun, D. M., Mayer, R. E., & Leutner, D. (2003). Cognitive load in reading a foreign language text with multimedia aids and the influence of verbal and spatial abilities. Computers in Human Behavior, 19(2), 221–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0747-5632(02)00015-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porte, G., & McManus, K. (2019). Doing replication research in applied linguistics. Routledge.Google Scholar
Poole, R. (2012). Concordance-based glosses for academic vocabulary acquisition. CALICO Journal, 29(4), 679–693. https://doi.org/10.11139/cj.29.4.679-693CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pulido, D. (2004). The relationship between text comprehension and second language incidental vocabulary acquisition: A matter of topic familiarity? Language Learning, 54(3), 469–523. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0023-8333.2004.00263.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Qian, D. D., & Lin, L. H. F. (2020). The relationship between vocabulary knowledge and language proficiency. In Webb, S. (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of vocabulary studies (pp. 66–80). Routledge.Google Scholar
Ramezanali, N., Uchihara, T., & Faez, F. (2021). Efficacy of multimodal glossing on second language vocabulary learning: A meta-analysis. TESOL Quarterly, 55(1), 105–133. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.579CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rassaei, E. (2018). Computer-mediated textual and audio glosses, perceptual style and L2 vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 22(6), 657–675. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168817690183CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rott, S. (2005). Processing glosses: A qualitative exploration of how form-meaning connections are established and strengthened. Reading in a Foreign Language, 17(2), 95–124.Google Scholar
Rott, S. (2007). The effect of frequency of input-enhancements on word learning and text comprehension. Language Learning, 57(2), 165–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00406.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rott, S., Williams, J., & Cameron, R. (2002). The effect of multiple-choice L1 glosses and input-output cycles on lexical acquisition and retention. Language Teaching Research, 3(3), 183–222. https://doi.org/10.1191/1362168802lr108oaCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rouhi, A., & Mohebbi, H. (2012). The effect of computer assisted L1 and L2 glosses on L2 vocabulary learning. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 9(2), 1–19.Google Scholar
Sadeghi, K., & Ahmadi, N. (2012). The effect of gloss type and mode on Iranian EFL learners’ vocabulary acquisition. Issues in Language Teaching, 1(1), 159–188.Google Scholar
Salehi, V., & Naserieh, F. (2013). The effects of verbal glosses on vocabulary learning and reading comprehension. Asian EFL Journal, 15(2), 24–64.Google Scholar
Salimi, E. A., & Mirian, E. S. (2019). The effect of L1 glosses for abstract words on English reading comprehension. The Reading Matrix: An International Online Journal, 19(1), 181–196.Google Scholar
Samian, H. V., Foo, T. C. V., & Mohebbi, H. (2016). The effects of giving and receiving marginal L1 glosses on L2 vocabulary learning by upper secondary learners. English Language Teaching, 9(2), 66–76. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v9n2p66CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, R. W. (2001). Attention. In Robinson, P. (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 3–32). Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N., Grabe, W., & Jiang, X. (2011). The percentage of words known in a text and reading comprehension. Modern Language Journal, 95(1), 26–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2011.01146.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N., Schmitt, D., & Clapham, C. (2001). Developing and exploring the behaviour of two new versions of the Vocabulary Levels Test. Language Testing, 18(1), 55–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/026553220101800103CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shahrokni, S. A. (2009). Second language incidental vocabulary learning: The effect of online textual, pictorial, and textual pictorial glosses. The Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language, 13(3), 1–27.Google Scholar
Sharwood-Smith, M. (1993). Input enhancement in instructed SLA: Theoretical bases. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15(2), 165–179. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100011943CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shiki, O. (2008). Effects of glosses on incidental vocabulary learning: Which gloss-type works better, L1, L2, single choice, or multiple choices for Japanese university students? Journal of Inquiry and Research, 87, 39–56.Google Scholar
Strong, B., & Boers, F. (2019). The error in trial and error: Exercises on phrasal verbs. TESOL Quarterly, 53(2), 289–319. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.478CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. Learning and Instruction, 4(4), 295–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/0959-4752(94)90003-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taheri, P., & Zade, M. H. (2014). On the incidental learning of abstract and concrete vocabulary items in L1 gloss and L2 gloss. English Language Teaching, 1(4), 77–91.Google Scholar
Teng, F. (2020). Retention of new words learned incidentally from reading: Word exposure frequency, L1 marginal glosses, and their combination. Language Teaching Research, 24(6), 785–812. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168819829026CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uchihara, T., Webb, S., & Yanagisawa, A. (2019). The effects of repetition on incidental vocabulary learning: A meta-analysis of correlational studies. Language Learning, 69(3), 559–599. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12343CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vahedi, V. S., Ghonsooly, B., & Pishghadam, R. (2016). Vocabulary glossing: A meta-analysis of the relative effectiveness of different gloss types on L2 vocabulary acquisition. Teaching English With Technology, 16(1), 3–25.Google Scholar
Van den Broek, G. S. E., Takashima, A., Segers, E., & Verhoeven, L. (2018). Contextual richness and word learning: Context enhances comprehension but retrieval enhances retention. Language Learning, 68(2), 546–585. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12285CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Varol, B., & Erçetin, G. (2016). Effects of working memory and gloss type on L2 text comprehension and vocabulary learning in computer-based learning. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 232, 759–768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.103Google Scholar
Varol, B., & Erçetin, G. (2019). Effects of gloss type, gloss position, and working memory capacity on second language comprehension in electronic reading. Computer Assisted Language Learning, Online First. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1643738Google Scholar
Warren, P., Boers, F., Grimshaw, G., & Siyanova-Chanturia, A. (2018). The effect of gloss type on learners’ intake of new words during reading: Evidence from eye-tracking. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40(4), 883–906. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263118000177CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watanabe, Y. (1997). Input, intake, and retention: Effects of increased processing on incidental learning of foreign language vocabulary. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(3), 287–307. https://doi.org/10.1017/S027226319700301XCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webb, S. (2020). Incidental vocabulary acquisition. In Webb, S. (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of vocabulary studies (pp. 225–239). Routledge.Google Scholar
Webb, S., Sasao, Y., & Balance, O. (2017). The updated vocabulary levels tests: Developing and validating two forms of the VLT. ITL – International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 168(1), 33–69. https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.168.1.02webCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yanagisawa, A., & Webb, S. (2021). To what extent does the Involvement Load Hypothesis predict incidental L2 vocabulary learning? A meta-analysis. Language Learning, 71(2), 487–536. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12444CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yanagisawa, A., Webb, S., & Uchihara, T. (2020). How do different forms of glossing contribute to L2 vocabulary learning from reading? A meta-regression analysis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 42(2), 411–438. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263119000688CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yanguas, I. (2009). Multimedia glosses and their effect on L2 text comprehension and vocabulary learning. Language Learning & Technology, 13(2), 48–67.Google Scholar
Yeh, Y., & Wang, C. (2003). Effects of multimedia vocabulary annotations and learning styles acquisition. CALICO Journal, 21(1), 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.v21i1.131-144CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yeung, A. S. (1999). Cognitive load and learner expertise: Split-attention and redundancy effects in reading comprehension tasks with vocabulary definitions. The Journal of Experimental Education, 67(3), 197–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220979909598353CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoshii, M. (2006). L1 and L2 glosses: Their effects on incidental vocabulary learning. Language Learning & Technology, 10(3), 85–101.Google Scholar
Yoshii, M. (2013). Effects of gloss types on vocabulary learning through reading: Comparison of single and multiple gloss gloss types. Special issue on learner-computer interaction in language education: A Festschrift in honor of Robert Fisher, CALICO Journal, 203–229.Google Scholar
Yoshii, M., & Flaitz, J. (2002). Second language incidental vocabulary retention: The effect of text and picture annotation types. CALICO Journal, 20(1), 33–58. https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.v20i1.33-58CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yun, J. (2011). The effects of hypertext glosses on L2 vocabulary acquisition: A meta-analysis. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24(1), 39–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2010.523285CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zahar, R., Cobb, T., & Spada, N. (2001). Acquiring vocabulary through reading: Effects of frequency and contextual richness. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(4), 541–572. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.57.4.541CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zarei, A. A., & Hasani, S. (2011). The effects of glossing conventions on L2 vocabulary recognition and production. The Journal of Teaching Language Skills (JTLS), 3(2), 209–233.Google Scholar
Zhang, Z., & Webb, S. (2019). The effects of reading bilingual books on vocabulary learning. Reading in a Foreign Language, 31(1), 108–139.Google Scholar
Zhao, T., & Ren, J. (2019). Incidental L2 lexical acquisition in reading: The role of L2-gloss frequency and learner proficiency. The Language Learning Journal, 47(5), 608–624. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2017.1349168CrossRefGoogle Scholar