Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-gtxcr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T05:42:10.178Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Learning difficulties and foreign language learning: A review of research and instruction

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 June 2009

Leonore Ganschow  and
Richard Sparks
Leonore Ganschow
Affiliation:
Professor Emeritus, Department of Educational Psychology, Miami University(OH)
Richard Sparks
Affiliation:
Professor, Department of Education, College of Mt. St. Joseph, 5701 Delhi Rd, Cincinnati, OH 45233–1670 e-mail: richard_sparks@mail.msj.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Review Article
Information
Language Teaching , Volume 34 , Issue 2 , April 2001 , pp. 79 - 98
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2001

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aaron, P. G. & Joshi, R. (1989). Reading anil writing disorders in different orthographic systems. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alderson, J. C. & Urquhart, A. H. (Eds.) (1984). Reading in a foreign language. NY: Longman.Google Scholar
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) (1989). American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages Proficiency Guidelines. Hastingson-Hudson, NY.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders IV. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (1990), P. L. 202–336, 42 U.S.C. Sec. 12101.Google Scholar
Anastasi, A. (1988). Psychological testing (6th Ed.) New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Anderson, P. & Meier-Hedde, R. (2001). Early case reports of dyslexia in the United States and Europe. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 9–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aries, J. (1994). An experimental Spanish course for learning disabled students. Hispania, 77, 110–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Association on Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD) (1997, 07). Guidelines for documentation of a learning disability in adolescents and adults. Columbus, OH. Author.Google Scholar
Astin, A., Green, K., Korn, W., Schaut, M. & Derz, E. (1988). The American freshman: National norms for 1988. University of California: Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Attorney General of Canada/Nancy Green and Canadian Human Rights Commission (2000). Docket T-1529–98, 06 2.Google Scholar
Au, S. (1988). A critical appraisal of Gardner's social-psychological theory of second language (L2) acquisition. Language Learning, 38, 75–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Block, L., Brinckerhoff, L. & Trueba, C. (1995). Options and accommodations in mathematics and foreign language for college students with learning disabilities. Information from HEATH (Higher Education and the Handicapped), 14 (2&3), 1–5.Google Scholar
Brady, S. & Shankweiler, D. (Eds.) (1991). Phonological processes in literacy. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Brewer, W. (1963). Specific language disability: Review of the literature and family study. Social Relations Honors Thesis, Harvard College.Google Scholar
Brod, R. & Huber, B. (1996). The MLA survey of foreign language entrance and degree requirements, 1994–95. Association of Departments of Foreign Languages (ADFL) Bulletin, 28, 35–43.Google Scholar
Bruck, M. (1978). Suitability of early French immersion programs for the language disabled child. Canadian Modern Language Review, 35, 884–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruck, M. & Genesee, F. (1995). Phonological awareness in young second language learners Journal of Child Language, 22, 307–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brügelmann, H. (1986). Kinder auf dem Weg zur Schrift: Eine Fibe für Lehrer und Laien (2nd ed.). Faude:Verlag Libelle.Google Scholar
Burstall, C., Jamieson, M., Cohen, S. & Hargreaves, M. (1974). Primary French in the balance: A report of the National Foundation for Educational Research in England and Hules. NFER Publishing Col. Ltd., Windsor, Berks.Google Scholar
Camphell, R. & Butterworth, B. (1986). Phonological dyslexia and dysgraphia in a highly literate subject: A developmental case with associated deficits of phonemic processing and awareness. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 37A, 435–75.Google Scholar
Carpenter, P. A. & Just, M. A. (1989). The role of working memory in language comprehension. In Klahr, D. & Kotovsky, K. (Eds.), Complex information processing: The impact of Herbert A. Simon, (pp. 31–68 ). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. (1962). The prediction of success in intensive foreign language training. In Glaser, R. (Ed.), Training and research in education (pp. 87–136). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers' College Record, 64, 723–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, J. (1973). Implications of aptitude test research and psycholinguistic theory for foreign language teaching. International Journal of Psycholinguistics, 2, 5–14.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. (1981). Twenty-five years of research on foreign language aptitude. In K. Diller, pp. 83–118.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. (1990). Cognitive abilities in foreign language aptitude:Then and now. In T. Parry & C. Stansfield, pp. 11–29.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. & Sapon, S. (1959). Modern Language Aptitude Test. NY: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Catts, H. (1989). Defining dyslexia as a developmental language disorder. Annals of Dyslexia, 39, 50–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chastain, K. (1975). Affective and ability factors in secondlanguage acquisition. Language Learning, 25, 153–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheung, H. (1996). Nonword span as a unique predictor of second-language vocabulary learning. Developmental Psychology, 12, 867–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, J. & O'Mara, F. (1991). Measurement and research implications of Spolsky's conditions for second language learning. Applied Language Learning, 2, 71–113.Google Scholar
Clement, R., Gardner, R. C. & Smythe, P. C. (1977). Motivational variables in second language acquisition: A study of francophones learning English. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science. 9, 123–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cline, T., Ganschow, L. & Reason, R. (Guest Eds.) (2000). Multilingualism and dyslexia. Dyslexia, 6, Parts 1 & 2.Google ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J. (1983). Learning disabilities and the college student: Identification and diagnosis. In Sugar, M. (Ed.), Adolescent psychiatry: Davlopmental and clinical studies (Vol. 2, pp. 177–98). San Diego: College-Hill.Google Scholar
Cowan, N. (1996). Short-term, working memory, and their importance in language processing. Topics in Language Disorders, 17, 1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cromdie, M. (1997). The effects of specific learning difficulties (dyslexia) on the learning of a foreign language in school. Dyslexia, 3, 27–47.3.0.CO;2-R>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. (1981). Bilingualism and minority language children. Toronto:The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.Google Scholar
Cummins, J. (1984). Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. San Diego, Ca: College-Hill Press.Google Scholar
Davies, A. (1971). Language aptitude in the first year of the U.K. secondary school. RELC Journal, 2, 4–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Demuth, K. & Smith, N. (1987). The foreign language requirement: An alternative program. Foreign Language Annals, 20, 66–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diller, K. (Ed.) (1981). Individual differences and universals in language learning aptitude. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Dinklage, K. (1971). Inability to learn a foreign language. In Blaine, G. & McArthur, C. (Eds.), Emotional problems of the student (pp. 184–206). NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Langnage Teaching, 31, 117–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Downey, D., Snyder, L. & Hill, B. (2000). College students with dyslexia: Persistent linguistic deficits and foreign language learning. Dyslexia, 6, 101–11.3.0.CO;2-8>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dufva, M. & Voeten, M. (1999). Native language literacy and phonological memory as prerequisites for learning English as a foreign language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20, 329–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durgunoglu, A. & Hancin, D. (1992). An overview of crosslanguage transfer in bilingual reading. In R. J. Harris, pp. 391–411.Google Scholar
Durgunoglu, A. & Öney, K. (1999). A cross-linguistic comparison of phonological awareness and word recognition. Reading and Writing:An Interdisciplinary Jonrnal, 11, 281–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durgunoglu, A. & Öney, K. (2000). Literacy development in two languages: Cognitive and sociocultural dimensions of cross-language transfer. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Language Affairs, Reading Research Symposium, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Durgunoglu, A. & Verhoeven, L. (Eds.) (1998). Acquisition of literacy in a multilingual context: A cross-cultural perspective. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Durkin, C. (2000). Dyslexia in bilingual children – Does recent research assist identification? Dyslexia, 6, 248–67.3.0.CO;2-O>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Education for All Handicapped Children Act (1975). Public Law 94–142.Google Scholar
Ehrman, M. (1990). The role of personality type in adult language learning: An ongoing investigation. In T. Parry & C. Sunsfield, pp. 126–78.Google Scholar
Ehrman, M. (1996). Understanding second language learning difficulties. London: SAGE Publications.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ehrman, M. & Oxford, R. (1995). Cognition plus: Correlates of language learning success. Modern Language Journal, 79, 67–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elbro, C. & Arnbak, E. (1996). The role of morpheme recognition and morphological awareness in dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 46, 209–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Everatt, J., Smythe, I., Adams, E. & Ocampo, D. (2000). Dyslexia screening measures and bilingualism. Dyslexia, 6, 42–56.3.0.CO;2-0>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fawcett, A. & Lynch, L. (2000). Systematic identification and intervention for reading difficulty: Case studies of children with EAL. Dyslexia, 6, 57–71.3.0.CO;2-W>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fawcett, A. & Nicolson, R. (1996). The Dyslexia Screening Test. London: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Fawcett, A. & Nicolson, R. (1998). The Dyslexia Adult Screening Test. London: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Freed, B. (1987). Exemptions from the foreign language requirement: A review of recent literature, problems, and policy. Association of Departments of Foreign Languages (ADFL) Bulletin, 18, 13–17.Google Scholar
Gajar, A. (1987). Foreign language learning disabilities: The identification of predictive and diagnostic variables. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20, 327–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ganschow, L., Myer, B. & Roeger, K. (1989). Foreign language policies and procedures for students with specific learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Focus, 5, 50–8.Google Scholar
Ganschow, L., Philips, L. & Schneider, E. (in press). Experiences with the university foreign language requirement: Voices of students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities:A Multidisciplinary Journal.Google Scholar
Ganschow, L. & Schneider, E. (2000). Dyslexia services and training in Germany. Thalamus, 18, 19–33.Google Scholar
Ganschow, L. & Sparks, R. (1986), Learning disabilities and foreign language difficulties: Deficit in listening skills? Journal of Reading, Writing, and Learning Disabilities International, 2, 305–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ganschow, L. & Sparks, R. (1987). The foreign language requirement. Learning Disabilities Fonus, 2, 115–23.Google Scholar
Ganschow, L. & Sparks, R. (1991). A screening instrument for the identification of foreign language learning problems: Evidence for a relationship between native and second language learning problems. Foreign Language Annals, 24, 383–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ganschow, L. & Sparks, R. (1995). Effects of direct instruction in Spanish phonology on the native language skills and foreign language aptitude of at-risk foreign language learners. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28, 107–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ganschow, L. & Sparks, R. (1996). Foreign language anxiety among high school women. Modern Language Journal, 80, 199–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ganschow, L. & Sparks, R. (2000). Reflections on foreign language study for students with language learning problems: Research, issues, and challenges. Dyslexia, 6, 87–100.3.0.CO;2-H>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ganschow, L., Sparks, R., Anderson, R., Javorsky, J., Skinner, S. & Patton, J. (1994). Differences in anxiety and language performance among high- and low-anxious college foreign language learners. Modern Language Journal, 78, 41–55.Google Scholar
Ganschow, L., Sparks, R. & Javorsky, J. (1998). Foreign language learning problems: An historical perspective. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, 248–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ganschow, L., Sparks, R., Javorsky, J., Pohlman, J. & Bishop-Marbury, A. (1991). Identifying native language difficulties among foreign language learners in college: A ‘foreign’ language learning disability? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 530–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gardner, R. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London:Arnold.Google Scholar
Gardner, R. (1988). The socio-educational model of secondlanguage learning: Assumptions, findings, and issues. Language Learning, 38, 101–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardner, R. (1990). Attitudes, motivation, and personality as predictors of success in foreign language learning. In T. Parry & C Stansfield. pp. 179–221.Google Scholar
Gardner, R., Clement, R., Smythe, P. & Smythe, C. (1979). Attitude and motivation test battery – Raised manual (Research. Bulletin No. 15). London, Ontario: Language Research Group, Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario.Google Scholar
Gardner, R., Gliksman, L. & Smythe, P. (1978). Attitudes and behaviour in second language acquisition: A social psychological interpretation. Canadian Psychological Review. 19, 173–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardner, R., Lalonde, R. & Pierson, R. (1983). The socioeducational model of second language acquisition: An investigation using LISREL causal modeling. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 2, 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardner, R. & Lambert, W. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Gardner, R. C. & MacIntyre, P. D. (1993). On the measurement of affective variables in second language learning. Language Leaming, 43, 157–94.Google Scholar
Gardner, R. & Smythe, P. (1975). Motivation and secondlanguage acquisition. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 31, 218–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geva, E. (2000). Issues in the assessment of reading disabilities in L2 children – beliefs and research evidence. Dyslexia, 6, 13–28.3.0.CO;2-6>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geva, E. & Siegel, L. S. (2000). Orthographic and cognitive factors in the concurrent development of basic reading skills in two languages. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 12, 1–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillingham, A. & Stillman, D. (1960). Remedial training for children with specific disability in reading, spelling, and penmanship. Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing.Google Scholar
Goodin, S. (1985). Academic adjustments for students with learning disabilities. In Support services for LD students in postsecondary education: A compendium of readings. Association on Handicapped Student Service Programs in Postsecondary Education, Columbus, OH.Google Scholar
Green, P. (1975). The language laboratory in schooh The York study. Edinburg: Oliver & Boyd.Google Scholar
Harrington, M. & Sawyer, M. (1992). L2 working memory capacity and L2 reading skill. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 14, 25–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, M. & Hatano, G. (Eds.) (1999). Learning to read and write:A cross-linguistic perspective. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Harris, R. J. (Ed.) (1992). Cognitive processing in bilinguals. Amsterdam: North-Holland.Google Scholar
Hermann, G. (1980). Attitudes and success in children's learning of English as a second language. English Language Teaching Journal. 34, 247–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horwitz, R. (2000). It ain't over until it's over: On foreign language anxiety, first language deficits, and the confounding of variables. Modern Language Journal, 84, 256–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horwitz, E., Horwitz, M. & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. Modern Language Journal, 70, 125–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horwitz, E. & Young, D. (1991). Language learning anxiety: From theory and research to classroom implications. Englewood Clifls, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Hulstijn, J. & Dossers, B. (1992). Individual differences in L2 proficiency as a function of L1 proficiency. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 4, 341–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humes-Bartlo, M. (1989). Variarion in children's ability to learn second languages. In Hyltenstam, K. & Obler, L. (eds.), Bilingualism across the life span (pp. 41–54). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (1990). PL 101–476.Google Scholar
Javorsky, J., Sparks, R. & Ganschow, L. (1992). Perceptions of college students with and without specific learning disabilities about foreign language courses. Learning Disabilities: Research and Practice, 7, 31–44.Google Scholar
Jung, U. (1980). Dyslexia and the foreign-language teacher. In Grotjahn, R. & Hopkins, E. (Eds.), Empirical research on language teaching and language acquisition (pp. 173–98). Bochum: Studienverlag Dr. N. Brocknieyer.Google Scholar
Kahn-Horwitz, J. (2000, 07). Identifying the best reading related predictor nariables for English foreign language reading achievement in elementary school age Hebrew speakers. Paper presented at the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Stockholm, Sweden.Google Scholar
Keeney, L. & Smith, N. (1984). Foreign language modifications for disabled students – the campus response. Association on Handicapped Student Service Programs in Post-Secondary Education (now called Association on Higher Education and Disability), 2, 4–5.Google Scholar
Koda, K. (1992). The effects of lower-level processing skills on FL reading performance: Implications for instruction. Modern Language Journal, 76, 502–12.Google Scholar
Krashen, S. (1980). The input hypothesis. In Alatis, J. E. (Ed.), Current issues in bilingual education: Georgetown University Round Table on Language and Linguistics (pp. 168–80). Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Krashen, S. & Terrell, T. (1983). The Natural Approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. Heyward, CA: Alemany/ Janus Press.Google Scholar
Lefebvre, R. (1984). A psychological consultation program for learning disabled adults. Journal of College Student Personnel, 25, 361–2.Google Scholar
Leong, C. K., Cheng, P-W. & Lam, C. (2000). Exploring reading-spelling connection as locus of dyslexia in Chinese. Annals of Dyslexia, 50, 239–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leong, C. K. & Joshi, R. (1997). Cross language studies of learning to read and spell. Boston, MA: Kluwer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levine, M. (1987). Developmental variation and learning disorders. Cambridge, M A: Educators Publishing Service.Google Scholar
Liberman, I. (1985). Should so-called modality preferences determine the nature of instruction for children with reading disabilities? In Duffy, F. & Geschwind, N. (Eds.), Dyslexia (pp. 93–104). Boston: Little, Brown.Google Scholar
Lyon, R. (1995). Toward a definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 45, 13–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacIntyre, P. (1995a). How does anxiety affect second language learning? A reply to Sparks and Ganschow. Modern Language Journal, 79, 90–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacIntyre, P. (1995b). On seeing the forest and the trees: A rejoinder to Sparks and Ganschow. Modern Language Journal, 79, 245–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacIntyre, P. & Gardner, R. (1989). Anxiety and second language learning: Toward a theoretical clarification. Language Learning, 39. 251–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McIntyre, C., & Pickering, J. (1995). Clinical studies of multisensory structured language education. International Multisensory Structured Language Education Council, Suite 346, 1118 Lancaster Drive, NE, Salem. OR.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, B. (1992). Working memory capacity as a constraint on L2 development. In R.J. Harris, pp. 123–35.Google Scholar
MacWhinney, B. (1992). Competition and transfer in second language learning. In R.J. Harris, pp. 371–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer-Schepers, U. (1991). Linguistik und Problematik des Schrifispracherverbs. Von der Sachlogik des Zusammenhangs von Laut- und Schriftsprache über die Logik der Aneignung von Schriftsprachkompetenz zur Diagnose und Tlierapie von Fehlersyndromen. Frankfurt:Verlag Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Miles, E. (1998). The Bangor dyslexia teaching system (3rd Ed.). London: Whurr.Google Scholar
Miles, E. (2000). Dyslexia may show a different face in different languages. Dyslexia, 6, 193–201.3.0.CO;2-P>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miles, T. R. (1993). Dyslexia: The pattern of difficulties (2nd Ed.). London:Whurr.Google Scholar
Miles, T. R. & Miles, E. (1999). slexia a hundred years on (2nd Ed.). Buckingham: Open University Press.Google Scholar
Moore, F. (1995). Section 504 and the Americans with Disabilities Act: Accommodating the learning disabled student in the foreign language curriculum. Association of Departments of Foreign Languages (ADFL) Bulletin, 26. 59–62.Google Scholar
Myer, B. & Ganschow, L. (1988). Profiles of frustration: Second language learners with specific learning disabilities. In Lalande, J. (Ed.), Shaping the future of foreign language education: FLES, articulation, and proficiency (pp. 32–53). Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co.Google Scholar
Myer, B., Ganschow, L., Sparks, R. & Kenneweg, S. (1989). Cracking the code: Helping students with specific learning disabilities. In McAlpine, D. (Ed.), Defining the essentials for the foreign language classroom (pp. 112–20). Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co.Google Scholar
Naiman, N., Frölich, M., Stern, H. & Todesco, A. (1978). The good language learners (Research in Education Series, 7). Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.Google Scholar
Oller, J. (1981). Research on the measurement of affective variables: Some remaining questions. In Anderson, R. (Ed.), New dimensions in second language learning (pp. 14–27). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Olshtain, E., Shohamy, E., Kemp, J. & Chatow, R. (1990). Factors predicting success in EFL among culturally different learners. Language Learning, 40, 23–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Onwueghuzie, A. J., Bailey, P. & Daley, C. (1999). Factors associated with foreign language anxiety. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20, 217–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oxford, R. (1989). Strategy Inventory for Language Learning. Alexandria, VA: Oxford Associates.Google Scholar
Oxford, R. (1990). Styles, strategies and aptitude: Connections for language learning. In T. Parry & C. Stansfield, pp.67–125.Google Scholar
Oxford, R. (1993). Research on second language learning strategies. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 175–87.Google Scholar
Oxford, R. (1997). Personality type in the foreign or second language classroom: Theoretical and experimental perspectives. In Horning, A. & Sudol, R. (Eds.), Understanding literary: Personality preference in rhetorical and psycholinguistic contexts (pp. 153–79). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.Google Scholar
Oxford, R. & Ehrman, M. (1993). Second language research on individual differences. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 188–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Papagno, C., Valentine, T. & Baddeley, A. (1991). Phonological short-term memory and foreign language vocabulary learning. Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 331–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parry, T., & Stansfield, C. (Eds.) (1990). Language aptitude reconsidered. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Peer, L. & Reid, G. (Eds.) (2000). Multilingualism, literacy, and dyslexia: A challenge for educators. London: David Fulton Publishers.Google Scholar
Perfetti, C., Rieben, L. & Fayol, M. (Eds.) (1997). Learning to spell: Research, theory and practice across languages. New Jersey: Erlbaum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petersen, C. & Al-Haik, A. (1976). The development of the Defense Language Battery (DLAB). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 36, 369–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Philips, L., Ganschow, L. & Anderson, R. (1991). The college foreign language requirement: An action plan for alternatives. NACADA Journal, 11, 51–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pimsleur, P. (1966a). The Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery. NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Pimsleur, P. (1966b). Testing foreign language learning. In Valdman, A. (Ed.), Trends in language teaching (pp. 175–214). New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Pimsleur, P. (1968). Language aptitude testing. In Davies, A.. (Ed.), Language testing symposium: A psycholinguistic approach (pp. 98–106). London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pimsleur, P., Sundland, D. & McIntyre, R. (1964). Underachievement in foreign language learning. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 2, 113–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pompian, N. & Thum, C. (1988). Dyslexic/learning disabled students at Dartmouth College. Annals of Dyslexia, 38, 276–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pritikin, L. (1999). A policy of inclusion: Alternative foreign language curriculum for high-risk and learning disabled students. ERIC Clearinghouse on Language and Linguistics, Center for Applied Linguistics. ED 428 586 (15 pp.).Google Scholar
Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Section 504, P. L. 93–112, 29US C. Sec 794 (1977).Google Scholar
Reid, G. (Ed.) (1993). Specific learning difficulties (dyslexia): Perspectives on practice. Edinburgh: Moray House Publications.Google Scholar
Rudel, R. (1981). Residual effects of childhood reading disorders. Bulletin of the Orton Society, 31, 89–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salter, R. & Smythe, I. (Eds.) (1997). The international book of dyslexia. London: World Dyslexia Network Foundation.Google Scholar
Schlee, J. (1976). Legasthenieforschung am Ende? München, Germany: Urban & Schwarzenberg.Google Scholar
Schneider, E. (1999). Multisensory structured metacognitive instruction: An approach to teaching a foreign language. Frankfurt a.M., Germany: Peter Lang Verlag.Google Scholar
Schneider, E. & Ganschow, L. (2000). Dynamic assessment and instructional strategies for learners who struggle to learn a foreign language. Dyslexia, 6, 72–82.3.0.CO;2-B>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scovel, P. (1978). The effect of affect on foreign language learning: A review of the anxiety research. Language Learning, 28, 129–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Service, E. (1992). Phonology, working memory, and foreign language learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 45A, 21–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Service, E. & Kohonen, V. (1995). Is the relation between phonological memory and foreign language learning accounted for by vocabulary acquisition? Applied Psycholinguistics, 16, 155–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siegel, L. & Ryan, E. G. (1989). The development of working memory in normally achieving and subtypes of learning disabled children. Child Davlopment, 60, 975–80.Google ScholarPubMed
Simon, C. (2000). Dyslexia and learning a foreign language: A personal expericnce. Annals of Dyslexia, 50, 155–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sirch, K. (1975). Der Unfug mit der Legasthenie. Stuttgart, Germany: Klett-Verlag.Google Scholar
Skehan, P. (1986a). The role of foreign language aptitude in a model of school learning. Langnage Testing, 3, 188–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skehan, P. (1986b). Where does language aptitude come from? In Meara, P. (Ed.), Spoken language (pp. 95–113). London: CiLT (Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research).Google Scholar
Skehan, P. (1989). Individual differences in second language learning. London: Edward Arnold.Google Scholar
Skehan, P. (1991). Individual differences in second language learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 13, 275–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skehan, P. (1998). Task-based instruction. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 18, 268–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R. (1995). Examining the Linguistic Coding Differences Hypothesis to explain individual differences in foreign language learning. Annals of Dyslexia, 45, 187–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sparks, R., Artzer, M., Javorsky, J., Patton, J., Ganschow, L., Miller, K. & Hordubay, D. (1998). Students classified as learning disabled (LD) and non learning disabled students: Two comparison studies of native language skill, foreign language aptitude, and foreign language proficiency. Foreign Language Annals, 31, 535–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R., Artzer, M., Patton, J., Ganschow, L., Miller, K., Horduday, D. & Walsh, G. (1998). Benefits of multisensory language instruction in Spanish for at-risk learners: A comparison study of high school Spanish students. Annals of Dyslexia, 48, 239–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R. & Ganschow, L. (1991). Foreign language learning difficulties: Affective or native language aptitude differences? Modern Language Journal, 75, 3–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R. & Ganschow, L. (1993a). Searching for the cognitive locus of foreign language learning problems: Linking first and second language learning. Modern Language Journal, 77, 289–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R. & Ganschow, L. (1993b). The effects of a multisensory structured language approach on the native language and foreign language aptitude skills of at-risk learners: A follow-up and replication study. Annals of Dyslexia, 43, 194–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R. & Ganschow, L. (1995a). A strong inference approach to causal factors in foreign language learning: A response to MacIntyre. Modern Language Journal, 79, 235–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R. & Ganschow, L. (1995b). Parent perceptions in the screening for performance in foreign language courses. Foreign Language Annals, 28, 371–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R. & Ganschow, L. (1996).Teachers' perceptions of students' foreign language academic skills and affective characteristics. Journal of Educational Research, 89, 172–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R. & Ganschow, L. (1997). Word recognition as a predictor of foreign language proficiency. Thalamus, 16, 20–24.Google Scholar
Sparks, R. & Ganschow, L. (Guest Eds.) (1999). The Boston University lawsuit: Introduction to the special series. Journal of Learning Disabilitics, 32, 284–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R. & Ganschow, L. (in press). Aptitude for learning a foreign language. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L., Artzer, M. & Patton, J. (1997). Foreign language proficiency of at-risk and not-at-risk learners over two years of foreign language instruction. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 92–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L., Artzer, M., Siebenhar, D. & Plageman, M. (1997). Language anxiety and proficiency in a foreign language. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 85, 559–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L., Artzer, M., Siebenhar, D., Plageman, M. & Patton, J. (1998). Differences in native language skills, foreign language aptitude, and foreign language grades among high, average, and low proficiency learners:Two studies. Language Testing, 15, 181–216.Google Scholar
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L., Fluharty, K. & Little, S. (1996). An exploratory study on the effects of Latin on the native language skills and foreign language aptitude of students with and without learning disabilities. Classical Journal, 91, 165–84.Google Scholar
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L. & Javorsky, J. (1993). Perceptions of low and high risk students and students with learning disabilities about high school foreign language courses. Foreign Language Annals, 26, 491–510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L. & Javorsky, J. (2000). Déjà vu all over again: A response to Saito, Horwitz, and Garza. Modern Language Journal, 84, 251–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L., Javorsky, J., Pohlman, J. & Patton, J. (1992a). Identifying native language deficits in high- and low-risk foreign language learners in high school. Foreign Language Annals, 25, 403–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L., Javorsky, J., Pohlman, J. & Patton, J. (1992b). Test comparisons among students identified as high-risk, low-risk, and learning disabled in high school foreign language courses. Modern Language Journal, 76, 142–59.Google Scholar
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L., Kenneweg, S. & Miller, M. (1991). Using Orton-Gillingham methodologies to teach foreign language to learning disabled/dyslexic students: Explicit teaching of phonology in a second language. Annals of Dyslexia, 41, 96–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L. & Patton, J. (1995). Prediction of performance in first-year foreign language courses: Connections between native language and foreign language learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 638–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L., Patton, J., Artzer, M., Siebenhar, D. & Plageman, M. (1997). Prediction of proficiency in a foreign language. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 549–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L. & Pohlman, J. (1989). Linguistic coding deficits in foreign language learners. Annals of Dyslexia, 39, 179–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L., Pohlman, J., Artzer, M. & Skinner, S. (1992). The effects of a multisensory structured language approach on the native and foreign language skills of high-risk foreign language learners. Annals of Dyslexia, 42, 25–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R. & Javorsky, J. (1999a). Section 504 and the Americans with Disabilities Act: Accommodating the learning disabled student in the foreign language curriculum: An update. Association of Departments of Foreign Languages (ADFL) Bulletin. 30, 36–44.Google Scholar
Sparks, R. & Javorsky, J. (1999b). Students classified as learning disabled and the college foreign language requirement: Replication and comparison studies. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 329–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sparks, R., Javorsky, J., Patton, J. & Ganschow, L. (1998). Principal components analysis of a test battery to predict proficiency in a foreign language. Applied Language Learning, 9, 71–106.Google Scholar
Sparks, R. & Miller, K. (2000). Teaching a foreign language using multisensory structured language techniques to at-risk learners: A review. Dyslexia, 6, 124–32.3.0.CO;2-3>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sparks, R., Philips, L. & Ganschow, L. (1996). Students classified as learning disabled and the foreign language requirement. In Liskin-Gasparro, J. (Ed.), Pattents and policies: The changing demographics of foreign language instruction (pp. 123–59). Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.Google Scholar
Sparks, R., Philips, L., Ganschow, L. & Javorsky, J. (1999a). Students classified as learning disabled and the college foreign language requirement: A quantitative analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 566–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sparks, R., Philips, L., Ganschow, L. & Javorsky, J. (1999b). Comparison of students classified as learning disabled who petitioned for or fulfilled the college foreign language requircment. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 553–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spolsky, D. (1986). Conditions for second language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Spolsky, B. (1995). Prognostication and language aptitude testing, 1925–62. Language Testing, 12, 321–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stahl, S. (1999). Different strokes for different folks? A critique of learning styles. American Educator, 23, 27–31.Google Scholar
Stahl, S. & Kuhn, M. (1995). Does whole language or instruction matched to learning styles help children to learn to read? School Psychology Review. 24, 393–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanovich, K. (1988). The right and wrong places to look for the cognitive locus of reading disability. Annals of Dyslexia, 38, 154–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stanovich, K. (1998). Twenty-five years of research on the reading process: The grand synthesis and what it means for our field. In Shanahan, T. & Rodriguez-Brown, F. (Eds.), Forty-seventh yearbook of the National Reading Conference (pp. 44–58). Chicago: National Reading Conference.Google Scholar
Strong, M. (1984). Integrative motivation: Cause or result of successful second language acquisition? Language Learning, 34, 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
This year's freshmen: A statistical profile. (1997, 01 17). The Chronicle of Higher Education, P. A42.Google Scholar
Tiedemann, J. (1989). Measures of cognitive styles: A critical review. Educational Psychologist, 24, 261–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tremblay, P. F. & Gardner, R. C. (1995). Expanding the motivation construct in language learning. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 505–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trites, R. L. (1984). Anglophone pupils with learning difficulties in French immersion programmes. In Williams, P. (Ed.), Special education in minority communities (pp. 68–76). Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press.Google Scholar
Trites, R. & Price, M. (1978). Learning disabilities in immersion. Canadian Modern Language Review, 34, 888–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tucker, J. (1980). Ethnic proportions in classes for the learning disabled: Issues in nonbiased assessment. Journal of Special Education, 14, 93–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valtin, R., Jung, U. & Scheerer-Neumann, G. (1981). Legasthenie in Wissenschaft und Unterricht: Leseprozeβmodell, Fremdsprachenlegasthenie und Erstlesedidaktik. Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenshaftliche Buchgesellschaft.Google Scholar
Vellutino, F. & Scanlon, D. (1986). Linguistic coding and metalinguistic awareness: Their relationship to verbal and code acquisition in poor and normal readers. In Yaden, D. & Templeton, S. (Eds.), Metalinguistic awareness and beginning literacy (pp. 115–41). Portsmouth, NH:Heinemann.Google Scholar
Wesche, M. (1981). Language aptitude measures in streaming, matching students with methods, and diagnosis of learning problems. In Diller, K. (Ed.), pp. 119–53.Google Scholar
Wesche, M., Edwards, H. & Wells, W. (1982). Foreign language aptitude and intelligence. Applied Psycholinguistics, 3, 127–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, D. (Ed.) (1999). Affect in foreign language and second language learning:A practical guide to creating a lou'-anxiety classroom atmosphere. Boston: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar