Lecanora albescens (Hoffm.) Branth & Rostr. is the correct authorship of this species, and the combination cannot be attributed to Flörke. Lecanora antiqua J. R. Laundon is described for the lichen previously, but wrongly, known in Britain as L. conferta; it is remarkable in occupying the interface between acid and calcareous surfaces on the vertical walls of medieval churches. The nomenclature of the lobed Lecanora, which has had two alternative Latin names since the early 19th century, namely L. muralis Rabenh. and L. saxicola (Pollich) Ach., has been studied and the latter was found to be correct.

Population genetics investigates the distribution of genetic variation in natural populations and the genetic differentiation among populations. Lichen-forming fungi are exciting subjects for population genetic studies due to their obligate symbiosis with a green-algal and/or cyanobacterial photobiont, and because their different reproductive strategies could influence fungal genetic structures in various ways. In this review, first, I briefly summarize the results from studies of chemotype variation in populations of lichen-forming fungi. Second, I compare and evaluate the DNA-based molecular tools available for population genetics of lichen-forming fungi. Third, I review the literature available on the genetic structure of lichen fungi to show general trends. I discuss some fascinating examples, and point out directions for future research.

Pronectria rolfiana Etayo sp. nov. is described on Solorina sp. from Austria and Germany. The new species has been confused with Xenonectriella lutescens, a species hitherto reported from one locality in Bavaria. Scutula pseudocyphellariae Etayo & Triebel is described on Pseudocyphellaria berberina and P. flavicans from southern Chile and Unguiculariopsis fasciculata Etayo on Ramalina stenospora from Florida. The new combination Clypeococcum psoromatis (A. Massal.) Etayo comb. nov. is introduced for the common Mediterranean lichenicolous fungus hitherto named Clypeococcum epicrassum (H. Olivier) Nav.-Ros. & Cl. Roux.

The new conidial lichenicolous fungus Calongia gibelluloides gen. sp. nov. is described from discoloured soredial patches on thalli of Flavoparmelia caperata and discoloured squamules of a Cladonia species collected in northern Spain. It is especially unusual in its minute size, the solitary conidiophores reaching at most 45 μm and bearing a cluster of conidiogenous cells that are at first enclosed by a membranous sheath, and produce 1-septate narrowly ellipsoid to elongate-reniform or elongate-soleiform fuscous conidia. The fungus has some features that recall the entomogenous hypocrealean genus Gibellula, but species of that genus have synnematous conidiomata, ornamented conidiophores, phialidic conidiogenous cells, no membranous vesicle, and non-septate conidia produced in chains. The phylogenetic placement remains uncertain in the absence of a teleomorph or molecular evidence.

To test the phylogenetic position of phenotypically peculiar species in the Physciaceae we generated 47 new sequences (26 of nrITS region and 21 of mtSSU rDNA) from 19 crustose taxa of Physciaceae mainly from the genus Rinodina. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed the Buellia and Physcia groups. The analysis revealed a considerable variability of characters traditionally used for classification, especially in the delimitation of the genera Buellia and Rinodina. While ascus types agree well with the distinction of the Buellia and Physcia groups, none of the other traditional characters, including excipulum type and ascospore thickening, were consistent within subclades of the Physcia group. We suggest that both excipulum type and ascospore characters are rather dynamic in the evolution of Rinodina species and only appear consistent in morphologically more complex foliose and fruticose groups, which are characterized by thallus characters not present in the crustose groups. Two recent taxonomic changes are supported by molecular characters: Endohyalina insularis (syn. ‘Rinodina’ insularis) and Rinodina lindingeri (syn. ‘Buellia’ lindingeri). In addition Rinodina parvula (syn. ‘Buellia’ parvula) is reinstated. New records for Endohyalina brandii, E. diederichii, E. insularis and Rinodina albana are presented.

The phylogeny of the Micarea prasina group was investigated using mitochondrial small subunit ribosomal DNA sequences from 14 taxa representing this group, four other members of the genus Micarea, and Psilolechia lucida as an outgroup. A total of 31 new mtSSU rDNA sequences were generated, including 10 from the M. micrococca complex. Bayesian, maximum parsimony (MP) and maximum likelihood (ML) methods were used to analyse the data. The results show that M. micrococca is not monophyletic and forms three strongly supported lineages: 1) M. micrococca s. str., 2) M. byssacea (Th. Fr.) Czarnota, Guzow-Krzemińska & Coppins comb. nov., and 3) a putative taxon that requires further studies. Micarea viridileprosa is a sister species to M. micrococca s. str. and the recently described M. nowakii is a sister species to M. prasina s. str. The placement of M. tomentosa within the M. prasina group is confirmed. Micarea hedlundii appears to be more closely related to the M. micrococca complex than M. prasina s. str. Descriptions, illustrations, taxonomic remarks, distribution and habitat data for M. micrococca s. str. and M. byssacea are provided. A lectotype for Biatora byssacea Hampe non Zwackh and a neotype for Catillaria prasina β [var.] byssacea are selected.

A taxonomic treatment of the genera included in Catapyrenium s. lat. in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands is provided, based on study of c. 2000 specimens from both herbaria and fresh material collected by the authors from 2005 to 2009 in numerous localities.

A total of 33 species belonging to six of the eight genera included in Catapyrenium s. lat. are present in the region, which correspond to c. 80% of species from Europe. The genera are Anthracocarpon Breuss, Catapyrenium Flot. (Catapyrenium s. str.), Heteroplacidium Breuss, Involucropyrenium Breuss, Neocatapyrenium H. Harada and Placidium A. Massal. The genus Neocatapyrenium is reported for the first time from this region. Clavascidium liratum, the only representative of the genus Clavascidium in the region, has been reduced to synonymy with Anthracocarpon virescens.

Heteroplacidium acervatum, H. congestum and Neocatapyrenium cladonioideum are new to Europe. Involucropyrenium pusillum, only previously known from Austria, I. waltheri, an arctic-alpine species, and Neocatapyrenium latzelii, known from Croatia and Greece, are cited for the first time in the Iberian Peninsula. Placidium subrufescens and P. tenellum, two mainly Mediterranean species, are also new records from the Iberian Peninsula. Placidium boccanum is here for the first time cited in Spain, and Anthracocarpon virescens, Heteroplacidium contumescens, Placidium imbecillum and P. michelii are new to Portugal. Most of the remaining species showed a considerable expansion of their known ranges. Placidium pyrenaicum is reduced to synonymy with P. velebiticum.

Keys to genera and species occurring in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands are presented.

Hysterium graphideum Speg. is proposed as a synonym of Gloniella graphidoidea Rehm. During the study of the types of both names, the presence of algae associated with the fungal hyphae was found. The main morphological and anatomical characters, and the ecology of the species are presented.

Pronectria collematis, growing on Collema auriforme, C. cristatum, and C. undulatum, is described from Germany and Spain.

Degelia cyanoloma (Schaer.) H. H. Blom & L. Lindblom is resurrected from synonymy and elevated from varietal rank to species. The taxon was earlier referred to D. plumbea (Lightf.) P. M. Jørg. & P. James, however, several discontinuous character states distinguish the two species. Degelia cyanoloma is characterized morphologically by having a large thallus that is pale greyish when dry, lobes that are composed of consecutive trough-shaped segments with an upper surface without squamules, no isidia or soredia, and apothecia discs that are dark reddish brown to blackish. Degelia cyanoloma has a euoceanic distribution and is known from western Europe (Norway, France, Great Britain, Ireland, Portugal, Spain). Based on results from studies of morphology, we hypothesize that D. atlantica (Degel.) P. M. Jørg. & P. James is the closest relative of D. cyanoloma among the European species of the genus whereas D. plumbea is closely related to D. ligulata P. M. Jørg. & P. James.

Twenty-six species recently described from Thailand are revised. Eleven taxa are reduced to synonymy with previously described species, including Leptotrema phaeosporum var. vainiona Räsänen. The following new combinations are proposed: Chapsa calathiformis (Vain.) Lumbsch & Papong, C. laemensis (Homchantara & Coppins) Lumbsch & Papong, Melanotrema melanophthalmum (Homchantara & Coppins) Lumbsch & Papong, Ocellularia albocincta (Hale) Divakar & Mangold, O. guianensis (Sipman) Divakar & Mangold, O. khunantensis (Homchantara & Coppins) Lumbsch & Papong, O. percolumellata (Sipman) Divakar & Mangold, O. subcalvescens (Nyl.) Divakar & Mangold and Ocellularia subgranulosa (Homchantara & Coppins) Lumbsch & Papong.

The lichenicolous fungus Lichenostigma rupicolae Fdez.-Brime & Nav.-Ros., collected in France, Spain and Turkey, is described as new to science. It is found growing on the surface of the thalli and apothecia of Pertusaria rupicola, where it forms black patches of radiating plurihyphal strands connecting the fertile stromata. An updated key of the species of subgenus Lichenogramma is included.

Caloplaca phlogina is shown here to have two kinds of soralia, yellow soralia with anthraquinones versus whitish or white-green soralia lacking pigments. Both kinds are present, growing side by side, in some localities in Scandinavia, but yellow soralia appear to be more common. In contrast, the populations from halophilous shrubs on the Black Sea coast have predominantly white soralia, and they were described as a separate species, C. scythica. A single collection from Chile also has white soralia. Molecular data and phenotype examinations convinced us that Scandinavian and Black Sea populations are conspecific. We consider the North European, phenotypically variable population as a source for the Black Sea population which is ecologically and phenotypically more uniform.

A new species, Halecania santessonii growing on Porpidia albocaerulescens, is described from the Russian Far East. It is the second lichenicolous Halecania species known.

In the course of an ongoing systematic and taxonomic revision of the lichen family Graphidaceae (including Thelotremataceae), we present world-wide keys to the currently accepted thelotremoid genera and species, excluding the columellate taxa and their relatives of the Ocellularia-Myriotrema-Stegobolus clade (Melanotrema, Myriotrema, Ocellularia, Ocellularia clandestina group, Redingeria, Stegobolus), which will be treated in a forthcoming paper. The keys include all genera and species with chroodiscoid, lepadinoid, and topeliopsidoid apothecia and other taxa featuring periphysoids or fibrils, and their relatives. Taxa keyed out to genus and species level are Acanthotrema, Chapsa, Chroodiscus, Diploschistes, Fibrillithecis, Gyrotrema, Leptotrema, Leucodecton, Melanotopelia, the ‘Ocellularia’ cruentata group, Pseudoramonia, Reimnitzia, Schizotrema, Thelotrema, Topeliopsis and Wirthiotrema. Over 260 species are treated, including a few yet unnamed taxa. The following taxonomic and nomenclatural novelties are introduced: Acanthotrema frischii Lücking sp. nov., Chapsa aggregata (Hale) Sipman & Lücking comb. nov., C. albida (Nyl.) Lücking & Sipman comb. nov.; C. albomaculata (Sipman) Sipman & Lücking comb. nov., C. boninensis (Tat. Matsumoto) Rivas Plata & Mangold comb. nov., C. elabens (Müll. Arg.) Rivas Plata & Mangold comb. nov., C. imperfecta (Hale) Rivas Plata & Lücking comb. nov., C. laceratula (Müll. Arg.) Rivas Plata & Lücking comb. nov., C. magnifica (Berk. & Broome) Rivas Plata & Lücking comb. nov., C. meghalayensis (Patw. & Nagarkar) Lumbsch & Divakar comb. nov., C. meridensis (Kalb & Frisch) Lücking, Lumbsch & Rivas Plata comb. nov., C. mirabilis (Zahlbr.) Lücking comb. nov., C. neei (Hale) Mangold & Lücking comb. nov., C. paralbida (Riddle) Rivas Plata & Lücking comb. nov., C. pseudoexanthismocarpa (Patw. & C. R. Kulk.) Rivas Plata & Lücking comb. nov., C. pulvereodisca (Hale) Rivas Plata & Mangold comb. nov., C. scabiomarginata (Hale) Rivas Plata & Lücking comb. nov., C. waasii (Hale) Sipman & Lücking comb. nov., Fibrillithecis argentea (Müll. Arg.) Rivas Plata & Lücking comb. nov., F. carneodisca (Hale) Rivas Plata & Lücking comb. nov., F. confusa Lücking, Kalb & Rivas Plata spec. nov., F. diminita (Hale) Rivas Plata & Lücking comb. nov., F. eximia (R. C. Harris) Rivas Plata & Lücking comb. nov., F. fissurata (Nagarkar & Hale) Rivas Plata & Lücking comb. nov., F. gibbosa (H. Magn.) Rivas Plata & Lücking comb. nov., Leucodecton desquamescens (Vain.) Lücking comb. nov., L. oxysporum (Redinger) Lücking comb. nov., Schizotrema cryptotrema (Nyl.) Rivas Plata & Mangold comb. nov., Thelotrema patwardhanii (Hale) Rivas Plata & Mangold comb. nov., Topeliopsis guaiquinimae (Sipman) Rivas Plata & Mangold comb. nov., and T. tuberculifera (Vain.) Rivas Plata & Mangold comb. nov. Using the examples of Fibrillithecis halei s. lat., Leucodecton compunctellum s. lat., and Thelotrema monosporum s. lat., we show how difficult species complexes can be flexibly treated in a key, allowing for either a broad concept or the distinction of several individual taxa.