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Catholicism and Modernity in Irish Political Thought: The Case of Aodh de Blácam
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 06 December 2022
Abstract
The political thought of Ireland's revolutionary generation has, in recent years, attracted increasing attention from scholars. However, the historiography of the Irish revolution and its aftermath remains marked by an enduring tendency to critique, rather than contextualize, the types of nationalist and religious motivations proffered commonly to justify political action in the early decades of the twentieth century. Focusing on the intellectual output of one highly original and conspicuously under-researched thinker, Aodh de Blácam, this article seeks to make some contribution towards redressing this historiographical deficit. In addition to highlighting the richness of the engagement with international debates in political theory that obtained among many members of Ireland's revolutionary generation, de Blácam's work illustrates vividly the heterodox range of influences that shaped Irish nationalism between the wars and the diverse conceptions of modernity that were formulated in response to the social and economic upheaval of the period.
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References
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15 See, for example, Lindsey Earner-Byrne, Mother and Child: Maternity and Child Welfare in Dublin, 1922–1960 (Manchester, 2007); Earner-Byrne, Letters of the Catholic Poor: Poverty in Independent Ireland, 1920–1940 (Cambridge, 2017).
16 Garvin, Nationalist Revolutionaries in Ireland, 110.
17 J. J. Lee, Ireland, 1912–1985 (Cambridge, 1989), 407, 610.
18 See, for example, Paul Bew and Henry Patterson, Sean Lemass and the Making of Modern Ireland (Dublin, 1982); Anne Chambers, T. K. Whitaker: Portrait of a Patriot (Dublin, 2014).
19 R. F. Foster, Modern Ireland, 1600–1972 (London 1989), 569; see also Tom Garvin, Preventing the Future: Why Was Ireland So Poor for So Long? (Dublin, 2004).
20 Fintan O'Toole, We Don't Know Ourselves: A Personal History of Ireland since 1958 (London, 2021), 5, 179.
21 See, for example, de Blácam's absence from, or peripherality to, Garvin, Nationalist Revolutionaries in Ireland; Lee, Ireland; Laffan, The Resurrection of Ireland; Foster, Vivid Faces.
22 Owen McGee, The IRB: The Irish Republican Brotherhood, from the Land League to Sinn Fein (Dublin, 2005), 364.
23 Aodh de Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For: The Irish Republican Movement; Its History, Aims and Ideals, Examined as to Their Significance to the World (Dublin, 1921), 133, 231.
24 Dáil Éireann debate, 1 March 1923 (vol. 2, No. 35).
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27 Aodh de Blácam, Towards the Republic: A Study of New Ireland's Social and Political Aims (Dublin, 1918); de Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For.
28 Aodh de Blácam, An Appeal to “Ultimate” Republicans: Why Not Make the Advance Now? (Dublin, 1922), 3.
29 Aodh de Blácam, Holy Romans: A Young Irishman's Story (Dublin, 1920), 103.
30 Ibid., 10.
31 Ibid., 23.
32 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, 81.
33 De Blácam, Holy Romans, 282.
34 Ibid., 238.
35 Ibid., 269.
36 Ibid., 233.
37 Ibid., 244.
38 Ibid., 237. For more on this wider European context see Martin Conway, Catholic Politics in Europe 1918–1945 (London, 1997); Darrell Jodock, ed., Catholicism Contending with Modernity: Roman Catholic Modernism and Anti-modernism in Historical Context (Cambridge, 2000); James Chappel, Catholic Modern: The Challenge of Totalitarianism and the Remaking of the Church (Cambridge, MA, 2018); Giuliana Chamedes, A Twentieth-Century Crusade: The Vatican's Battle to Remake Christian Europe (Cambridge, MA, 2019); Sarah Shortall, Soldiers of God in a Secular World: Catholic Theology and Twentieth-Century French Politics (Cambridge, MA, 2021).
39 For engagement with Oswald Spengler, The Decline of the West, vol. 1, Form and Actuality, trans. Charles Francis Atkinson (London, 1918); Spengler, The Decline of the West, vol. 2, Perspectives of World History, trans. Charles Francis Atkinson (London, 1922), see Aodh de Blácam, “Heroic Ireland,” in The Saint Brigid Readers (Senior) (London, 1935), 65–73; de Blácam, “Review: The Decline of the West by O. Spengler,” Irish Monthly 63/746 (1935), 539–48; de Blácam, “Decline of the West: The Death of a Philosopher,” Irish Press, 28 May 1936, 8; de Blácam, “Review: New Views of Old History,” Irish Monthly 75/889 (1947), 308–13. For engagement with Albert Demangeon's Le déclin de l'Europe (Paris, 1920), see Aodh de Blácam, “The Terrible Plight of Europe: Will Our Race Come Home?”, Irish Independent, 14 July 1920, 4.
40 De Blácam, “Review: The Decline of the West by O. Spengler,” 544, 548.
41 Ibid., 544.
42 Ibid., 548; Christopher Dawson, Progress and Religion: An Historical Enquiry (London, 1929), 246–63. De Blácam engages with Dawson's Catholic diagnosis of European decline in the same review.
43 G. K. Chesterton, The Everlasting Man (London, 1927), 10–11; see also Chesterton, The Resurrection of Rome (London, 1930), 311–16, 345–6.
44 Hilaire Belloc, Europe and the Faith (New York, 1920), 260–61; see also Belloc, The Crisis of Our Civilization (London, 1937).
45 Pope Pius XI, Ubi Arcano Dei Consilio, 23 Dec. 1922, Section 45, at www.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_19221223_ubi-arcano-dei-consilio.html.
46 De Blácam, Holy Romans, 306–7.
47 Aodh de Blácam, “From the Watch Tower,” Irish Monthly 49/527(1921), 83–5. He is referring here to Pope Leo XIII's 1891 encyclical, Rerum Novarum, widely regarded as the foundational document of the modern tradition of Catholic social teaching.
48 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, ix.
49 De Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For, vii.
50 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, x, 12.
51 Ibid., 19.
52 De Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For, 21.
53 Some of the most influential include J. A. Hobson, Imperialism: A Study (London, 1902); V. I. Lenin, Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism (Moscow, 1917); G. P. Gooch, Nationalism (London, 1920); Carlton J. H. Hayes, Essays on Nationalism (New York, 1926).
54 See, for example, the sources surveyed in George L. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution: A History of European Racism (New York, 1978); Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, 1848–1918 (Cambridge, 1989).
55 Aodh de Blácam, “Nationality in Economics,” Irish Monthly, 46/544 (1918), 545–53, at 552.
56 Ibid., 548–9.
57 Ibid., original emphasis.
58 Ernest Renan, Qu'est-ce qu'une nation? Conférence faite en Sorbonne, le 11 mars 1882 (Paris, 1882), 26. De Blácam, “Nationality in Economics,” 549, cites this phrase approvingly.
59 Renan, Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?, 27.
60 Ramsey Muir, Nationalism and Internationalism: The Culmination of Modern History (London, 1916), 38; cited in de Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For, 22.
61 See, for example, Foster, Modern Ireland; Richard English, Irish Freedom: A History of Nationalism in Ireland (London, 2008).
62 Aodh de Blácam, “The Gaelic League Yesterday and To-day,” Irish Monthly, 46/546 (1918), 677–83.
63 De Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For, 23.
64 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, 12.
65 De Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For, 21.
66 For engagement with Arthur J. Penty's A Guildsman's Interpretation of History (London, 1920), and references to works by Orage and Hobson, see De Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For, xv, 156, 235.
67 De Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For, 197.
68 Ibid., xiii.
69 Darrell Figgis, The Gaelic State in the Past and Future, or “The Crown of a Nation” (Dublin, 1917), 5. De Blácam also quotes extensively from Figgis's The Historic Case for Irish Independence (Dublin, 1918).
70 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, 22.
71 De Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For, xiv–xvi.
72 See, for example, Marshall Berman, All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity (London, 1982); Jeffrey Herf, Reactionary Modernism: Technology, Culture and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich (Cambridge, 1984); Peter Osborne, The Politics of Time: Modernity and Avant-Garde (London, 1995); Roger Griffin, Modernism and Fascism: The Sense of a Beginning under Mussolini and Hitler (New York, 2007).
73 Aodh de Blácam, From a Gaelic Outpost (Dublin, 1921), 94.
74 Aodh de Blácam, “Letter to the Editor,” Irish Independent, 10 May 1919, 3.
75 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, 22.
76 Ibid., 23.
77 For more on the origins and evolution of the concept of subsidiarity in interwar Catholic thought see Joseph Boyle, “Rerum Novarum (1891),” in Gerard V. Bradley and E. Christian Brugger, eds., Catholic Social Teaching: A Volume of Scholarly Essays (Cambridge, 2019), 69–89. For more on the institutional Church's response to the challenge of fascism in interwar Europe see, for example, Hubert Wolf, Pope and Devil: The Vatican's Archives and the Third Reich (Cambridge, MA, 2010); John F. Pollard, The Papacy in the Age of Totalitarianism, 1914–1958 (Oxford, 2014).
78 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, 38.
79 De Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For, 135.
80 Aodh de Blácam, “Letter to the Editor,” Irish Independent, 10 May 1919, 3.
81 Aodh de Blácam quoted in “Future of Gaelic Movement,” Irish Independent, 13 June 1923, 8; Donnelly, Seán, “Republicanism and Civic Virtue in Treatyite Political Thought, 1921–1923,” Historical Journal 63/5 (2020), 1274–5Google Scholar.
82 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, 79.
83 Aodh de Blácam, The Life Story of Wolfe Tone (Dublin, 1935), 7.
84 Michael Collins, The Path to Freedom (Dublin, 1922), 55. For analogous depictions of the loose, federal character of government control in medieval Ireland see, for example, Alice Stopford Green, The Making of Ireland and Its Undoing, 1200–1600 (London, 1909); Green, Irish Nationality (New York, 1911); P. S. O'Hegarty, The Indestructible Nation: A Survey of Irish History from the Invasion (Dublin, 1918); Eóin MacNeill, Phases of Irish History (Dublin, 1920).
85 Michael Tierney, Education in a Free Ireland (Dublin, 1920), 97.
86 De Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For, xiii.
87 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, 51.
88 Ibid., 51.
89 Ibid., 87, 88, 95.
90 Ibid., 86.
91 Aodh de Blácam, The Black North: An Account of the Six Counties of Unrecovered Ireland, Foreword by Eamon de Valera (Dublin, 1938), 289, 291, 298.
92 See Maume, Patrick, “Anti-Machiavel: Three Ulster Nationalists of the Age of de Valera,” Irish Political Studies, 14/1 (1999), 43–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
93 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, 87.
94 Blácam, Aodh de, “The Other Hidden Ireland,” Studies 23/91 (1934), 452–3Google Scholar, original emphasis. The text to which he is responding is Daniel Corkery, The Hidden Ireland: A Study of Gaelic Munster in the Eighteenth Century (Dublin 1924).
95 Blácam, Aodh de, “Some Thoughts on Partition,” Studies, 23/92 (1934), 561–76Google Scholar, at 561, 576.
96 Ibid., 570.
97 Ibid., 561.
98 De Blácam, “The Other Hidden Ireland,” 449–50.
99 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, 24.
100 Ibid., 24–6; see similarly George Russell, The National Being: Some Thoughts on an Irish Policy (Dublin, 1916).
101 Patrick Doyle, Civilising Rural Ireland: The Co-operative Movement, Development and the Nation-State, 1889–1939 (Manchester, 2019), 2.
102 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, 26.
103 Ibid., 28.
104 James Connolly, Labour in Irish History (New York, 1919), 14.
105 De Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For, 206.
106 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, 43–4.
107 See, for example, Chamedes, A Twentieth-Century Crusade, 69–120.
108 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, 40.
109 De Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For, 155. In a European context, he was far from alone in undertaking this kind of intellectual work; see, for example, Piotr Kosicki, Catholics on the Barricades: Poland, France, and “Revolution,” 1891–1956 (New Haven, 2018); Gerd-Rainer Horn, Left Catholicism, 1943–1955: Catholics and Society in Western Europe at the Point of Liberation (Leuven, 2001).
110 Ibid., xvi.
111 Jay P. Corrin, G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc: The Battle against Modernity (Athes, OH, 1981). De Blácam also regularly reviewed and commented on work by Chesterton and Belloc in his capacity as a journalist; see, for example, Aodh de Blácam, “Belloc Hammers H. G. Wells,” Irish Independent, 29 Nov. 1926, 4; de Blácam, “‘G.K.C’ Tells His Own Story,” Irish Press, 9 Nov. 1936, 8.
112 See, for example, Hilaire Belloc, “On Progress,” Studies 9/36 (1920), 497–511; G. K. Chesterton, “The Mission of Ireland,” Studies 21/83 (1932), 374–84; Chesterton, Irish Impressions (London, 1919); Chesterton, Christendom in Dublin: Personal Impressions of the 31st Eucharistic Congress in Dublin 1932 (London, 1933). Newspaper reports also attest to the regularity with which the pair contributed to public lecture events in Ireland; see, for example, “Mr Belloc's Visit,” Freeman's Journal, 22 May 1915, 8; “Lecture by Mister Hilaire Belloc,” Irish Independent, 15 Dec. 1926, 8; “Mr G. K. Chesterton in Ireland,” Irish Independent, 23 Sept. 1918, 2; “G. K. Chesterton's Visit,” Evening Herald, 5 April 1928, 6.
113 Jay P. Corrin, Catholic Intellectuals and the Challenge of Democracy (Notre Dame, 2002), 15–16.
114 Hilaire Belloc, The Servile State (London: T. N. Foulis, 1912), 62.
115 Aodh de Blácam, “No Property, No Freedom: The Chesterton–Belloc Theory Discussed by ‘Rerum Novarum’,” Irish Press, 6 July 1936, 8.
116 Tom Villis, Reaction and the Avant-Garde: The Revolt against Liberal Democracy in Early Twentieth-Century Britain (London, 2006), 41–72.
117 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, 29, 35.
118 De Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For, 226–7.
119 Ibid., 228.
120 For context see Tom Villis, British Catholics and Fascism: Religious Identity and Political Extremism between the Wars (Basingstoke, 2013), 77–98.
121 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, 87.
122 Stefano Solari, “The Corporative Third Way in Social Catholicism (1830 to 1918),” European Journal of the History of Economic Thought 17/1 (2010), 87–113.
123 Pope Pius IX, Rerum Novarum (15 May 1891), Section 3, at www.vatican.va/content/leo-xiii/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_l-xiii_enc_15051891_rerum-novarum.html.
124 Antonio Costa Pinto, “Fascism, Corporatism and the Crafting of Authoritarian Institutions in Inter-war European Dictatorships,” in António Costa Pinto and Aristotle Kallis, eds., Rethinking Fascism and Dictatorship in Europe (Basingstoke, 2014), 87–120; Philip Morgan, “Corporatism and the Economic Order,” in R. J. B. Bosworth, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Fascism (Oxford, 2009), 150–65.
125 António Costa Pinto, ed., Corporatism and Fascism: The Corporatist Wave in Europe (London, 2017).
126 See, for example, P. J. Williamson, Varieties of Corporatism: A Conceptual Discussion (Cambridge, 1985).
127 John Pollard, “Corporatism and Political Catholicism: The Impact of Catholic Corporatism in Inter-war Europe,” in Pinto, Corporatism and Fascism, 50–51.
128 In this regard he was influenced heavily by Hilaire Belloc and Cecil Chesterton, The Party System (London, 1911).
129 De Blácam, Towards the Republic, 65.
130 De Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For, 133.
131 Ibid., 143.
132 Ibid., 145.
133 Ibid., 133; George Young, The New Germany (London, 1920), 217.
134 De Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For, 133.
135 Ibid., 140.
136 Ibid., 140.
137 Ibid., 141.
138 Villis, British Catholics and Fascism, 103.
139 De Blácam, What Sinn Fein Stands For, 133. See, for example, Don O'Leary, Vocationalism and Social Catholicism in Twentieth-Century Ireland (Dublin, 2000).
140 Constitution of the Irish Free State (Saorstát Eireann) Act, 1922, at www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1922/act/1/enacted/en/print.html.
141 See Martin O'Donoghue, “‘As Nearly Subservient’ as It Could Be? Vocationalism and Senatorial Speaking Behaviour in the Irish Senate 1938–45,” Parliaments, Estates and Representation 36/2 (2016), 211–31.
142 Mike Cronin, The Blueshirts and Irish Politics (Dublin, 1997); Fearghal McGarry, Eoin O'Duffy: A Self-Made Hero (Oxford, 2005).
143 See, for example, Donal K. Coffey, Drafting the Irish Constitution, 1935–1937: Transnational Influences in Interwar Europe (London, 2018).
144 See, for example, Leonard Francis Taylor, Catholic Cosmopolitanism and Human Rights (Cambridge, 2020), 218–24; for the broader European context see also Samuel Moyn, Christian Human Rights (Philadelphia, 2015); Marco Duranti, The Conservative Human Rights Revolution: European Identity, Transnational Politics, and the Origins of the European Convention (New York, 2017); Sarah Shortall and Daniel Steinmetz-Jenkins, eds., Christianity and Human Rights Reconsidered (Cambridge, 2020).
145 See, for example, Aodh de Blácam, Gaelic Literature Surveyed (Dublin, 1929), 23.
146 Aodh de Blácam, For God and Spain: The Truth about the Spanish Civil War (Dublin, 1936), 2.
147 Aodh De Blácam, ‘Can Ireland Help Spain?’, Irish Monthly, 64/760 (1936), 645–51, at 649.
148 Ibid., 650.
149 Ibid.
150 Aodh de Blácam, “The Catholic Nations and Spain,” Irish Press, 24 February 1937, 8.
151 R. M. Douglas, Architects of the Resurrection: Ailtirí na hAiséirghe and the Fascist “New Order” in Ireland (Manchester, 2009).
152 De Blácam, “Review: The Decline of the West by O. Spengler,” 540, 543. For context see James Chappel, “The Catholic Origins of Totalitarianism Theory in Interwar Europe,” Modern Intellectual History 8/3 (2011), 561–90.
153 Aodh de Blácam, “The Jews Scapegoats Now,” Sunday Independent, 15 Jan. 1922, 3; see also Colum Kenny, The Enigma of Arthur Griffith: “Father of Us All” (Dublin, 2020), 179–80.
154 “Doing More Harm than Penal Laws,” Ulster Herald, 23 April 1938, 2.
155 See, for example, Ronan Fanning, Éamon de Valera: A Will to Power (London, 2015), 199–224.
156 Mary Daly, The Slow Failure: Population Decline and Independent Ireland, 1920–73 (Madison, 2006), 40, 167–72. That in arguing this position de Blácam evoked the spectre of Irish women entering “a Jewman's house in the English slums” indicates that he grew more disposed towards invoking anti-Semitic tropes in later life.
157 Aodh de Blácam, “Emigration: The Witness of Geography,” Studies 39/155 (1950), 279–88, at 280, 288.
158 Regan, The Irish Counter-revolution; Kissane, The Politics of the Irish Civil War; Gavin M. Foster, The Irish Civil War and Society: Politics, Class, and Conflict (London, 2015).
159 Brian Hanley, “‘Merely Tuppence Half-Penny Looking Down on Tuppence’? Class, the Second Dáil and Irish Republicanism,” in Mícheál Ó Fathartaigh and Liam Weeks, eds., The Treaty: Debating and Establishing Irish Independence (Dublin, 2018), 90–112.
160 One need only observe the parallels between de Blácam's early writings and those of the Blueshirt intellectual Michael Tierney for evidence of this circumstance. See Donnelly, Seán, “Michael Tierney and the Intellectual Origins of Blueshirtism, 1920–1938,” Journal of Comparative Fascist Studies 10/1 (2021), 85–107Google Scholar.
161 See, for example, Schmitter, Philippe C., “Still the Century of Corporatism?”, Review of Politics 36/1 (1974), 85–131CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Émile Perreau-Saussine, Catholicism and Democracy: An Essay in the History of Political Thought, trans. Richard Rex (Princeton, 2012); Maria Mitchell, The Origins of Christian Democracy: Politics and Confession in Modern Germany (Ann Arbor, 2012); Carlo Invernizzi Accetti, What Is Christian Democracy? Politics, Religion, and Ideology (Cambridge, 2019); Martin Conway, Western Europe's Democratic Age: 1945–1968 (Princeton, 2022).