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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 07 September 2020
Historical scholarship on “great spaces,” a central concept in the political thought of Nazi Germany, has previously focused on legal debates while neglecting important economic contexts. The journalist Ferdinand Fried deserves to be considered one of the major economic theorists of “great spaces” in the Weimar, Nazi, and early postwar eras. Fried argued that the world economy was inexorably passing from globalization through economic nationalism to a reconstituted “world economy of great spaces.” Deglobalization, as he depicted it, was a global experience that produced similar economic and political outcomes around the world. His writings anticipated and inspired Nazi propaganda aimed at legitimizing German hegemony in Europe. His ideas, and their reception, illustrate how dialectical and global visions of history have resonated with conservative intellectuals during crises of the world economy.
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17 He joined the NSDAP in 1940. Rasse- und Siedlungshauptamt, Friedrich Zimmermann, BArch R 9361 III/233611; SS-Führerpersonalakten, Friedrich Zimmermann, BArch R 9361 III/565432.
18 Similar ideas could be found in Sombart, Werner, “Die Wandlungen des Kapitalismus,” Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv 28 (1928), 243–56Google Scholar. On Fried as a popularizer of Sombart's ideas see Lebovics, Social Conservatism, 184–5.
19 Fried, Das Ende des Kapitalismus, 7. His skepticism about the transformative possibilities of early twentieth-century technology has parallels in recent reflections about twenty-first-century productivity stagnation. See Gordon, Robert J., The Rise and Fall of American Growth: The U.S. Standard of Living since the Civil War (Princeton, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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21 Ibid., 168–70; Fried, Autarkie, 12–13. In reality, Britain was more affected by the industrialization of the non-European world than were other exporting countries. On the whole, the global division of labor did not change dramatically during the interwar period. James, Harold, The End of Globalization: Lessons from the Great Depression (Cambridge, MA, 2001), 106–7Google Scholar; Findlay, Ronald and O'Rourke, Kevin H., Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millenium (Princeton, 2007), 437–9, 461–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Graff, Michael, Kenwood, A. G., and Lougheed, A. L., Growth of the International Economy, 1820–2015, 5th edn (Abingdon, 2014), 204–6Google Scholar.
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25 For “Großraum” see Wirsing, Giselher, “Richtung Ost-Südost!”, Die Tat 22/8 (Nov. 1930), 628–45, at 634Google Scholar; for “Großraumwirtschaft” see Fried, “Wo stehen wir?”, 384.
26 Fried, Autarkie, 126, original emphasis.
27 See Neitzel, Sönke, Weltmacht oder Untergang: Die Weltreichslehre im Zeitalter des Imperialismus (Paderborn, 2000)Google Scholar; Bell, Duncan, The Idea of Greater Britain: Empire and the Future of World Order, 1860–1900 (Princeton, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Beckert, Sven, “American Danger: United States Empire, Eurafrica, and the Territorialization of Industrial Capitalism, 1870–1950,” American Historical Review 122/4 (2017), 1137–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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29 For a variety of interpretations see Gürge, Wilhelm and Grotkopp, Wilhelm, eds., Großraumwirtschaft: Der Weg zur europäischen Einheit (Berlin, 1931)Google Scholar; “Großraumwirtschaft,” Der Neue Brockhaus (Leipzig, 1937), 2: 296; Daitz, Werner, Der Weg zur völkischen Wirtschaft: Ausgewählte Reden und Aufsätze (Munich, 1938)Google Scholar; Thiele, Walter, Großraumwirtschaft in Geschichte und Politik (Dresden, 1938)Google Scholar; and Helmuth Wohlthat, “Großräume und Meistbegünstigung,” Die deutsche Volkswirtschaft, 23 Dec. 1938, 536–40.
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31 Reichsnährstand, Personalakten, Friedrich Zimmermann, BArch R 16/6981; Friedrich Zimmermann to the Rasse- und Siedlungshauptamt SS, 15 Jan. 1936, BArch R 9361 III/233611; “Lebenslauf,” 9 Oct. 1940, BArch R 9361 V/12205.
32 “I released you from the organization of [my] Staff Office so that you could dedicate yourself to fundamental problems without impediment,” Darré noted. R. Walther Darré to Friedrich Zimmermann, 27 March 1939, NL Friedrich Zimmermann, BArch N 1208, Nr. 1, p. 24.
33 Fried, Ferdinand, Der Aufstieg der Juden (Goslar, 1937), 9Google Scholar; Fried, Latifundien vernichteten Rom! (Goslar, 1938).
34 Friedrich Zimmermann to Eugen Diederichs Verlag, 7 April 1938, A:Diederichs, Deutsches Literaturarchiv Marbach.
35 Fried, Ferdinand, Wende der Weltwirtschaft (Leipzig, 1939), 7Google Scholar. The date of first publication appears on the copyright page of the book's second printing.
36 Schmitt was an enthusiastic reader of Die Tat and socialized with Fried and Zehrer at Werner Sombart's house in the early 1930s. Fritzsche, Klaus, Politische Romantik und Gegenrevolution. Fluchtwege in der Krise der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft: Das Beispiel des ‘Tat’-Kreises (Frankfurt am Main, 1976), 57Google Scholar; Carl Schmitt, diary entry for 22 April 1932, in Schmitt, Tagebücher 1930–1934, ed. Wolfgang Schuller in cooperation with Gerd Giesler (Berlin, 2010), 188–9.
37 Schmitt, Völkerrechtliche Großraumordnung, 23, 35.
38 Ibid., 37–9, 43–4, 53–4.
39 Schmitt, “Großraum gegen Universalismus,” 334–6.
40 Fried, Wende der Weltwirtschaft, 163–81.
41 Ibid., 111–23. Fried drew on contemporary analyses by Robertson, D. H., “The Future of International Trade,” Economic Journal 48/189 (1938), 1–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Jacks, G. V. and Whyte, R. O., The Rape of the Earth: A World Survey of Soil Erosion (London, 1939)Google Scholar.
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45 Ibid., 393, 423–4.
46 Ibid., 322.
47 Ibid., 303–4, 347, quotation at 315.
48 Ibid., 322–3.
49 Ibid., 310–72.
50 Ibid., 302–3, 305, 308, 310, 324–5.
51 Fried had first discussed this possibility in Ferdinand Fried. Zimmermann, “Die Überwindung des Kapitalismus,” Odal 5/12 (June 1937), 959–75, at 961–2.
52 Fried, Wende der Weltwirtschaft, 434–5.
53 Ibid., 231–3.
54 Ibid., 303, 435–8.
55 Ibid., 420, 438.
56 Ibid., 442.
57 Ibid., 439, 442.
58 Ibid., 447.
59 Ibid., 30–31, 196.
60 His contemporary, Werner Daitz, would subsequently divide the world into “living spaces” defined by unique racial groups. See Daitz, Werner, “Neuordnung Europas aus Rasse und Raum,” Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte 11/126 (Sept. 1940), 529–34Google Scholar.
61 Fried, Wende der Weltwirtschaft, 302.
62 Hitler, Adolf, Mein Kampf, trans. Manheim, Ralph (Boston, 1999), 140–44Google Scholar; Weinberg, Gerhard L., ed., Hitler's Second Book: The Unpublished Sequel to Mein Kampf, trans. Smith, Krista (New York, 2006), 23–7, 74–9, 158–9, 231–2Google Scholar. In September 1941, Hitler told Otto Abetz, Germany's ambassador to Vichy France, “Europe will cover its entire demand for raw materials itself and have its own export market in the Russian space, so that we will no longer need the rest of world trade.” Akten zur deutschen auswärtigen Politik 1918–1945, series D, vol. XIII-2 (Göttingen, 1970), Nr. 327, 423–5, at 425. See Thies, Jochen, Hitler's Plans for Global Domination: Nazi Architecture and Ultimate War Aims, trans. Cooke, Ian and Friedrich, Mary-Beth (New York, 2012), 164, 173–4Google Scholar.
63 Deutsche Reichsbank, Volkswirtschaftliche Abteilung, “Probleme der äußeren Währungspolitik nach Beendigung des Krieges,” 20 June 1940, BArch R 2501/7015, 66–83, at 67–8.
64 Walther Funk, “Die wirtschaftliche Neuordnung Europas” (26 July 1940), Monatshefte für Auswärtige Politik 7/8 (Aug. 1940), 630–36, at 632–3.
65 Kletzin, Birgit, Europa aus Rasse und Raum: Die nationalsozialistische Idee der Neuen Ordnung (Münster, 2000), 201–9Google Scholar; Link, Stefan, “How Might 21st-Century De-globalization Unfold? Some Historical Reflections,” New Global Studies 12/3 (2018), 343–65, at 360–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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75 Fried received an appointment as honorary professor at the German university in Prague, to which he commuted to deliver lectures on economics between fall 1941 and spring 1943. Der Kurator der deutschen wissenschaftlichen Hochschulen in Prag, Professor Friedrich Zimmermann, BArch R 31/710; Ferdinand Fried. Zimmermann to Fritz Kranefuß, 24 June 1942, BArch NS 21/2732. See his inaugural lecture, Ferdinand Fried, Die geistigen Grundlagen der weltwirtschaftlichen Strukturwandlung (Stuttgart, 1941).
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77 Schöttler, Peter, “Fernand Braudel as Prisoner in Germany: Confronting the Long Term and the Present Time,” in Pathé, Anne-Marie and Théofilakis, Fabien, eds., Wartime Captivity in the Twentieth Century: Archives, Stories, Memories, trans. McPhail, Helen (New York, 2016), 103–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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84 W.R. [Wilhelm Röpke], “Wende der Weltwirtschaft III.,” Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 30 May 1941 (Abendausgabe), Blatt 6.
85 Ferdinand Fried, “‘Dritter Weg’ der Weltwirtschaft,” Münchner Neueste Nachrichten, 17 June 1941, 1–2, at 1.
86 Fried's denazification file contains a list of his lecture destinations, “Extrabogen zu G: Veröffentlichungen,” Fragebogen, 6 Nov. 1946, as well as a copy of the exchange between Fried and Ohlin, “Tyska storrumstesen och Sverige: Ett meningsutbyte,” Stockholms-Tidningen, 6 May 1943, Staatsarchiv München, Spruchkammerakten Karton 2045, Zimmermann Friedrich.
87 Fried, Ferdinand, “Die Probleme der Weltwirtschaft,” Mitteilungen der Deutschen Handelskammer in Schweden 9 (1943), 111–24, at 117–19Google Scholar. Fried spoke to the German chamber of commerce in Stockholm on 5 March 1943.
88 Ibid., 120. Condliffe did not wish for this extreme outcome, which he associated with a German victory, though he did expect to see the economic sovereignty of smaller states diminished after the war. Condliffe, J. B., The Reconstruction of World Trade (New York, 1940), 366Google Scholar, see also 368–9, 382. In his review of Turning Point of the World Economy, Röpke had conspicuously praised Condliffe as a more reliable economic commentator than Fried. See Röpke, “Wende der Weltwirtschaft II.”
89 Condliffe, The Reconstruction of World Trade, 394. Fried cited this passage in his lecture at the German chamber of commerce in Zurich on 17 May 1943, Fried, “Zukunft der Weltwirtschaft,” 28. The lecture's publication was blocked by the Swiss censor on account of its propagandistic nature. I am grateful to Stefan Andreas Keller for providing me with a copy of the unpublished page proofs from the Swiss archives. See Keller, Stefan Andreas, Im Gebiet des Unneutralen: Schweizerische Buchzensur im Zweiten Weltkrieg zwischen Nationalsozialismus und Geistiger Landesverteidigung (Zurich, 2009), 142–7Google Scholar.
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91 Walter Tießler to Joseph Goebbels, 3 Sept. 1942, BArch NS 18/615, pp. 8–9. On Tießler's career see Bytwerk, Randall L., “Grassroots Propaganda in the Third Reich: The Reich Ring for National Socialist Propaganda and Public Enlightenment,” German Studies Review 33/1 (2010), 93–118Google Scholar.
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95 Hans Schumann, “Ein falscher Prophet,” in ibid., 76–9, at 77.
96 Testimonial from Gerhard Herrmann, director of the Wilhelm Goldmann Verlag, 25 Oct. 1946; Friedrich Zimmermann, “Lebenslauf,” 6 Jan. 1948; Friedrich Zimmermann, “Politischer Lebenslauf,” undated, Staatsarchiv München, Spruchkammerakten Karton 2045, Zimmermann Friedrich.
97 Headquarters Ninth Infantry Division, Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff G-2, CI Screening Staff Civilian Internment Camp 15, APO 9, “Subject: Zimmermann Friedrich 15 – 1467,” 18 Feb. 1946, Staatsarchiv München, Spruchkammerakten Karton 2045, Zimmermann Friedrich.
98 “Vernehmung des Friedrich Zimmermann durch Dr. R. M. W. Kempner,” 22 May 1947, M1019/81/681.
99 Ibid., M1019/81/680, M1019/81/682. Both Fried and Schmitt were interrogated by Kempner as potential witnesses for the prosecution at Nuremberg. See Quaritsch, Helmut, ed., Carl Schmitt: Antworten in Nürnberg (Berlin, 2000)Google Scholar.
100 Ferdinand Friedrich Zimmermann, “Eidesstattliche Erklaerung,” 9 Aug. 1948, BArch All. Proz. 1 Rep. 501/LVI Weizsäcker Abt. F 9, Darré-Dokumenten-Buch VI, Darré-Dokument Nr IA 16d., pp. 47–53, at 50–51, 52.
101 Robert M. W. Kempner to Chief Public Prosecutor Bark, Internment and Labor Camp Regensburg, 23 May 1947; Klageschrift, 31 July 1947, Staatsarchiv München, Spruchkammerakten Karton 2045, Zimmermann Friedrich.
102 Alfons Vodermayer, “Bestätigung,” 13 Oct. 1946; Alfons Pallauf, “Erklärung,” 14 Oct. 1946, Staatsarchiv München, Spruchkammerakten Karton 2045, Zimmermann Friedrich.
103 Testimony of Kurt Sendtner, “Protokoll der öffentlichen Sitzung,” 9 Feb. 1948; Franz Reuter, “Erklärung,” 24 Jan. 1947, Staatsarchiv München, Spruchkammerakten Karton 2045, Zimmermann Friedrich.
104 Spruch, 9 Feb. 1948, Staatsarchiv München, Spruchkammerakten Karton 2045, Zimmermann Friedrich.
105 Ferdinand Fried to Ernst Jünger, 16 March 1948, A:Jünger, Deutsches Literaturarchiv Marbach; Entlassungsschein, 2 April 1948, Staatsarchiv München, Spruchkammerakten Karton 2045, Zimmermann Friedrich.
106 Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Sonderaufgaben, “Entschliessung. Betr.: Zimmermann Friedrich, Törwang,” 9 Nov. 1948; Hauptkammer München, Außenstelle Rosenheim, Spruch, 15 July 1949, Staatsarchiv München, Spruchkammerakten Karton 2045, Zimmermann Friedrich.
107 “Zur Person: Franz-Josef Strauß im Gespräch mit Günter Gaus,” 29 April 1964, 12:50–13:40, at www.youtube.com/watch?v=jpfA-d_YeGc, accessed 21 March 2020. I am grateful to Ernst Herb for this reference.
108 Ferdinand Fried. Zimmermann to Richard Walther Darré, 29 May 1946, NL Richard Walther Darré, BArch N 1094I, Nr. 19.
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110 Ibid., 287. His support for a “European Union” was further thematized in Fried, Ferdinand, Das Abendteuer des Abendlandes (Düsseldorf, 1950), 224–6, 234–40Google Scholar.
111 Fried, Wandlungen der Weltwirtschaft, 272.
112 Ferdinand Fried, “Neue Wende in der Weltwirtschaft,” Münchner Merkur, 24–6 Dec. 1952, 19.
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115 Ibid., 267–8.
116 Ibid., 286, 292–3.
117 See Schmitt, Carl, “Die Einheit der Welt,” Merkur 6/1 (Jan. 1952), 1–11Google Scholar, which he sent as an offprint to Fried on 10 May 1952. NL Friedrich Zimmermann, BArch N 1208, Nr. 9.
118 Payk, Markus M., “A Post-liberal Order? Hans Zehrer and Conservative Consensus Building in 1950s West Germany,” Modern Intellectual History 9/3 (2012), 681–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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120 Ferdinand Fried, “Wem nützt der Osthandel?,” Die Welt, 1 July 1961, 1–2; Fried, “Der rote Handel lockt …,” Die Welt, 27 Jan. 1962, 11; Fried, “Russenöl im Anmarsch,” Die Welt, 24 March 1962, 11.
121 Poliakov, Léon and Wulf, Josef, eds., Das Dritte Reich und seine Denker: Dokumente (Berlin, 1959), 368Google Scholar.
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123 Werner Lichey, “Abschied von einem Freund,” Die Welt, 11 July 1967, 2.
124 For the liberal embrace of dialectics see Fukuyama, Francis, The End of History and the Last Man (New York, 1992)Google Scholar.
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126 Reynolds, David, One World Divisible: A Global History since 1945 (New York, 2000), 4Google Scholar, original emphasis.
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