1.
Freemantle, E, Vandal, M, Tremblay-Mercier, J, et al. (2006) Omega-3 fatty acids, energy substrates, and brain function during aging. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids
75, 213–220.
2.
Abdin-Sobocki, P, Jönsson, B, Wittchen, HU, et al. (2005) Costs of disorders of the brain in Europe. Eur J Neurol
12, Suppl. 1, 1–27.
3.
Hibbeln, JR & Davis, JM (2009) Considerations regarding neuropsychiatric nutritional requirements for intakes of omega-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids
81, 179–186.
4.
Milte, CM, Parletta, N, Buckley, JD, et al. (2012) Eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids, cognition, and behavior in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Nutrition
28, 670–677.
5.
Ross, BM (2009) Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and anxiety disorders. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids
81, 309–312.
6.
Hellhammer, J, Hero, T, Franz, N, et al. (2012) Omega-3 fatty acids administered in phosphatidylserine improved certain aspects of high chronic stress in men. Nutr Res
32, 241–250.
7.
Stordy, BJ (1999) 7-Docosahexaenoic acid: a dietary factor essential for individuals with dyslexia, attention deficit disorder and dyspraxia. In Lipids in Health and Nutrition, pp. 102–114 [JHP Tyman, editor]. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited.
8.
Gow, RV & Hibbeln, JR (2014) Omega-3 fatty acid and nutrient deficits in adverse neurodevelopment and childhood behaviors. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am
23, 555–590.
9.
Stonehouse, W, Conlon, CA, Podd, J, et al. (2013) DHA supplementation improved both memory and reaction time in healthy young adults: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr
97, 1134–1143.
10.
Mohajeri, MH, Troesch, B & Weber, P (2015) Inadequate supply of vitamins and DHA in the elderly: implications for brain aging and Alzheimer-type dementia. Nutrition
31, 261–275.
11.
Muldoon, MF, Ryan, CM, Sheu, L, et al. (2010) Serum phospholipid docosahexaenonic acid is associated with cognitive functioning during middle adulthood. J Nutr
140, 848–853.
12.
Witte, AV, Kerti, L, Hermannstädter, HM, et al. (2014) Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids improve brain function and structure in older adults. Cereb Cortex
24, 3059–3068.
13.
Yurko-Mauro, K, McCarthy, D, Rom, D, et al. (2010) Beneficial effects of docosahexaenoic acid on cognition in age related cognitive decline. Alzheimers Dement
6, 456–464.
14.
Wurtman, RJ, Cansev, M, Sakamoto, T, et al. (2010) Nutritional modifiers of aging brain function: use of uridine and other phosphatide precursors to increase formation of brain synapses. Nutr Rev
68, Suppl. 2, S88–S101.
15.
Yurko-Mauro, K (2010) Cognitive and cardiovascular benefits of docosahexaenoic acid in aging and cognitive decline. Curr Alzheimer Res
7, 190–196.
16.
Gao, Q, Niti, M, Feng, L, et al. (2011) Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplements and cognitive decline: Singapore longitudinal aging studies. J Nutr Health Aging
15, 32–35.
17.
Velho, S, Marques-Vidal, P, Baptista, F, et al. (2008) Dietary intake adequacy and cognitive function in free-living active elderly: a cross-sectional and short-term prospective study. Clin Nutr
27, 77–86.
18.
Chiu, CC, Su, KP, Cheng, TC, et al. (2008) The effects of omega-3 fatty acids monotherapy in Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment: a preliminary randomized double-blind placebo controlled study. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry
32, 1538–1544.
19.
Kotani, S, Sakaguchi, E, Warashina, S, et al. (2006) Dietary supplementation of arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids improves cognitive dysfunction. Neurosci Res
56, 159–164.
20.
Lee, LK, Shahar, S, Chin, AV, et al. (2013) Docosahexaenoic acid-concentrated fish oil supplementation in subjects with mild cognitive impairment (MCI): a 12-month randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Psychopharmacology
225, 605–612.
21.
Salem, N Jr, Vandal, M & Calon, F (2015) The benefit of docosahexaenoic acid for the adult brain in aging and dementia. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids
92, 15–22.
22.
Daiello, LA, Gongvatana, A, Dunsiger, S, et al. (2015) Association of fish oil supplement use with preservation of brain volume and cognitive function. Alzheimers Dement
11, 226–235.
23.
Solfrizzi, V, Colacicco, AM, D’Introno, A, et al. (2006) Dietary fatty acids intakes and rate of mild cognitive impairment. The Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging. Exp Gerontol
41, 619–627.
24.
Cunnane, SC, Chouinard-Watkins, R, Castellano, CA, et al. (2013) Docosahexaenoic acid homeostasis, brain aging and Alzheimer’s disease: can we reconcile the evidence?
Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids
88, 61–70.
25.
Morris, MC, Evans, DA, Bienias, JL, et al. (2003) Consumption of fish and n-3 fatty acids and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol
60, 940–946.
26.
Schaefer, EJ, Bongard, V, Beiser, AS, et al. (2006) Plasma phosphatidylcholine docosahexaenoic acid content and risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease: the Framingham Heart Study. Arch Neurol
63, 1545–1550.
27.
Cunnane, SC, Plourde, M, Pifferi, F, et al. (2009) Fish, docosahexaenoic acid and Alzheimer’s disease. Prog Lipid Res
48, 239–256.
28.
Fotuhi, M, Mohassel, P & Yaffe, K (2009) Fish consumption, long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and risk of cognitive decline or Alzheimer disease: a complex association. Nat Clin Pract Neurol
5, 140–152.
29.
Devore, EE, Grodstein, F, van Rooij, FJ, et al. (2009) Dietary intake of fish and omega-3 fatty acids in relation to long-term dementia risk. Am J Clin Nutr
90, 170–176.
30.
Wu, S, Ding, Y, Wu, F, et al. (2015) Omega-3 fatty acids intake and risks of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease: a meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev
48, 1–9.
31.
Cardoso, C, Bandarra, N, Lourenço, H, et al. (2010) Methylmercury risks and EPA+DHA benefits associated with seafood consumption in Europe. Risk Anal
30, 827–840.
32.
Quinn, JF, Raman, R, Thomas, RG, et al. (2010) Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation and cognitive decline in Alzheimer disease: a randomized trial. J Am Med Assoc
304, 1903–1911.
33.
Corrigan, FM, Van Rhijn, AG, Ijomah, G, et al. (1991) Tin and fatty acids in dementia. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids
43, 229–238.
34.
Cunnane, SC, Schneider, JA, Tangney, C, et al. (2012) Plasma and brain fatty acid profiles in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis
29, 691–697.
35.
Igarashi, M, Ma, K, Gao, F, et al. (2011) Disturbed choline plasmalogen and phospholipid fatty acid concentrations in Alzheimer disease prefrontal cortex. J Alzheimer Dis
24, 507–517.
36.
Whelan, J (2008) (n-6) and (n-3) Polyunsaturated fatty acids and the aging brain: food for thought. J Nutr
138, 2521–2522.
37.
Hanhoff, T, Lücke, C & Spener, F (2002) Insights into binding of fatty acids by fatty acid binding proteins. Mol Cell Biochem
239, 45–54.
38.
Storch, J & Thumser, AE (2010) Tissue-specific functions in the fatty acid-binding protein family. J Biol Chem
285, 32679–32683.
39.
Scott, BL & Bazan, NG (1989) Membrane docosahexaenoate is supplied to the developing brain and retina by the liver. Proc Nat Acad Sci U S A
86, 2903–2907.
40.
Mitchell, RW & Hatch, GM (2011) Fatty acid transport into the brain: of fatty acid fables and lipid tails. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes Essent Fatty Acids
85, 293–302.
41.
Hamilton, JA & Brunaldi, K (2007) A model for fatty acid transport into the brain. J Mol Neurosci
33, 12–17.
42.
Ratnayake, WMN & Hollywood, R (1997) Influence of diet on human milk fatty acid composition. Abstracts, 88th AOCS Annual Meeting and Expo: 96. Seattle: AOCS Press.
43.
Beydoun, MA, Kaufman, JS, Satia, JA, et al. (2007) Plasma n-3 fatty acids and the risk of cognitive decline in older adults: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Am J Clin Nutr
85, 1103–1111.
44.
Laurin, D, Verreault, R, Lindsay, J, et al. (2003) Omega-3 fatty acids and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia. J Alzheimers Dis
5, 315–322.
45.
Manzato, E, Roselli della Rovere, G, Zambon, S, et al. (2003) Cognitive functions are not affected by dietary fatty acids in elderly subjects in the ProVA study population. Aging Clin Exp Res
15, 83–86.
46.
Glomset, JA (2006) Role of docosahexaenoic acid in neuronal plasma membranes. Sci STKE
321, pe6.
47.
Kennedy, EM & Weiss, SB (1956) The function of cytidine coenzymes in the biosynthesis of phospholipids. J Biol Chem
222, 193–214.
48.
Wurtman, RJ, Ulus, IH, Cansev, M, et al. (2006) Synaptic proteins and phospholipids are increased in gerbil brain by administering uridine plus docosahexaenoic acid orally. Brain Res
1088, 83–92.
49.
Cansev, M & Wurtman, RJ (2007) Chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid or eicosapentaenoic acid, but not arachidonic acid, alone or in combination with uridine, increases brain phosphatide and synaptic protein levels in gerbils. Neuroscience
148, 421–431.
50.
Svennerholm, L (1968) Distribution and fatty acid composition of phosphoglycerides in normal human brain. J Lipid Res
9, 570–579.
51.
Martínez, M & Mougan, I (1998) Fatty acid composition of human brain phospholipids during normal development. J Neurochem
71, 2528–2533.
52.
Conquer, JA & Holub, BJ (1997) Dietary docosahexaenoic acid as a source of eicosapentaenoic acid in vegetarians and omnivores. Lipids
32, 341–345.
53.
Sawazaki, S, Salem, NJ Jr & Kim, HY (1994) Lipoxygenation of docosahexaenoic acid by the rat pineal body. J Neurochem
62, 2437–2447.
54.
Long, EK, Murphy, TC, Leiphon, LJ, et al. (2008)
Trans-4-hydroxy-2-hexenal is a neurotoxic product of docosahexaenoic (22:6; n-3) acid oxidation. J Neurochem
105, 714–724.
55.
Bazan, NG, Molina, MF & Gordon, WC (2011) Docosahexaenoic acid signalolipidomics in nutrition: significance in aging, neuroinflammation, macular degeneration, Alzheimer’s, and other neurodegenerative diseases. Ann Rev Nutr
31, 321–351.
56.
Porta, A, Pasi, M, Brunoldi, E, et al. (2013) Biology and chemistry of neuroprostanes. First total synthesis of 17-A4-NeuroP: validation of a convergent strategy to a number of cyclopentenone neuroprostanes. Chem Phys Lipids
174, 64–74.
57.
Bazan, NG, Birkle, DL & Reddy, TS (1984) Docosahexaenoic acid (22:6, n-3) is metabolized to lipoxygenase reaction products in the retina. Biochem Biophys Res Commun
125, 741–747.
58.
Bazan, NG (2007) Homeostatic regulation of photoreceptor cell integrity: significance of the potent mediator neuroprotectin D1 biosynthesized from docosahexaenoic acid: the Proctor Lecture. Invest Ophthalmol Visual Sci
48, 4866–4881.
59.
Bazan, NG (2009) Neuroprotectin D1-mediated anti-inflammatory and survival signaling in stroke, retinal degenerations, and Alzheimer’s disease. J Lipid Res
50, S400–S405.
60.
Calandria, JM, Marcheselli, VL, Mukherjee, PK, et al. (2009) Selective survival rescue in 15-lipoxygenase-1-deficient retinal pigment epithelial cells by the novel docosahexaenoic acid-derived mediator, neuroprotectin D1. J Biol Chem
284, 17877–17882.
61.
Lukiw, WJ, Cui, J, Marcheselli, VL, et al. (2005) A role for docosahexaenoic acid-derived neuroprotectin D1 in neural cell survival and Alzheimer disease. J Clin Invest
115, 2774–2783.
62.
Brand, A, Schonfeld, E, Isharel, I, et al. (2008) Docosahexaenoic acid-dependent iron accumulation in oligodendroglia cells protects from hydrogen peroxide-induced damage. J Neurochem
105, 1325–1335.
63.
Lukiw, WJ & Bazan, NG (2008) Docosahexaenoic acid and the aging brain. J Nutr
138, 2510–2514.
64.
Mukherjee, PK, Chawla, A, Loayza, MS, et al. (2007) Docosanoids are multifunctional regulators of neural cell integrity and fate: significance in aging and disease. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids
77, 233–238.
65.
Rapoport, SI, Rao, JS & Igarashi, M (2007) Brain metabolism of nutritionally essential polyunsaturated fatty acids depends on both the diet and the liver. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids
77, 251–261.
66.
Cole, GM & Frautschy, SA (2006) Docosahexaenoic acid protects from amyloid and dendritic pathology in an Alzheimer’s disease mouse model. Nutr Health
18, 249–259.
67.
Kim, HY, Akbar, M, Lau, A, et al. (2000) Inhibition of neuronal apoptosis by docosahexaenoic acid (22:6 n-3). J Biol Chem
275, 35215–35223.
68.
Lukiw, WJ (2008) Emerging amyloid β (Aβ) peptide modulators for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Expert Opin Emerg Drugs
13, 255–271.
69.
Lukiw, WJ (2006) Cholesterol and 24S-hydroxycholesterol trafficking in Alzheimer’s disease. Expert Rev Neurother
6, 683–693.
70.
Bu, G (2009) Apolipoprotein E and its receptors in Alzheimer’s disease: pathways, pathogenesis and therapy. Nat Rev Neurosci
10, 333–344.
71.
Hauser, PS, Narayanaswami, V & Ryan, RO (2011) Apolipoprotein E: from lipid transport to neurobiology. Prog Lipid Res
50, 62–74.
72.
Chouinard-Watkins, R, Rioux-Perreault, C, Fortier, M, et al. (2013) Disturbance in uniformly 13C-labelled DHA metabolism in elderly human subjects carrying the apoE ε4 allele. Br J Nutr
110, 1751–1759.
73.
Vandal, M, Alata, W, Tremblay, C, et al. (2014) Reduction in DHA transport to the brain of mice expressing human APOE4 compared to APOE2. J Neurochem
129, 516–526.
74.
Plourde, M, Vohl, MC, Vandal, M, et al. (2009) Plasma n-3 fatty acid response to an n-3 fatty acid supplement is modulated by apoE ε4 but not by the common PPAR-α L162V polymorphism in men. Br J Nutr
102, 1121–1124.
75.
Bradbury, J (2011) Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA): an ancient nutrient for the modern human brain. Nutrients
3, 529–554.
76.
Calder, PC (2015) Marine omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes: effects, mechanisms and clinical relevance. Biochim Biophys Acta
1851, 469–484.
77.
Serhan, CN (2005) Mediator lipidomics. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat
77, 4–14.
78.
Freund-Levi, Y, Hjorth, E, Lindberg, C, et al. (2009) Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on inflammatory markers in cerebrospinal fluid and plasma in Alzheimer’s disease: The OmegAD study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord
27, 481–490.
79.
Meinert, CL & Breitner, JC (2008) Chronic disease long-term drug prevention trials: lessons from the Alzheimer’s Disease Anti-inflammatory Prevention Trial (ADAPT). Alzheimers Dement
4, S7–S14.
80.
Patel, NS, Paris, D, Mathura, V, et al. (2005) Inflammatory cytokine levels correlate with amyloid load in transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer’s disease. J Neuroinflammation
2, 9.
81.
Schultzberg, M, Lindberg, C, Forslin, ÅA, et al. (2007) Inflammation in the nervous system – physiological and pathophysiological aspects. Physiol Behav
92, 121–128.
82.
Srinivasarao, P, Narayanareddy, K, Vajreswari, A, et al. (1997) Influence of dietary fat on the activities of subcellular membrane-bound enzymes from different regions of the brain. Neurochem Int
31, 789–794.
83.
Klose, C, Surma, MA & Simons, K (2013) Organellar lipidomics – background and perspectives. Cur Opin Cell Biol
25, 406–413.
84.
Lee, AG (2011) Biological membranes: the importance of molecular detail. Trends Biochem Sci
36, 493–500.
85.
Shevchenko, A & Simons, K (2010) Lipidomics: coming to grips with lipid diversity. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol
11, 593–598.
86.
Kahya, N, Scherfeld, D, Bacia, K, et al. (2003) Probing lipid mobility of raft-exhibiting model membranes by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. J Biol Chem
278, 28109–28115.
87.
Silvius, JR (1982) Thermotropic phase transitions of pure lipids in model membranes and their modification by membrane proteins. In Lipid–Protein Interactions
vol. 2, pp. 239–281 [PC Jost and OH Griffith, editors]. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
88.
Surma, MA, Klose, C, Klemm, RW, et al. (2011) Generic sorting of raft lipids into secretory vesicles in yeast. Traffic
12, 1139–1147.
89.
Burri, L (2015) Krill oil supplementation and cognitive function. In Diet and Nutrition in Dementia and Cognitive Decline, chapter 96 pp. 1031–1038 [CR Martin and V Preedy, editors]. Oxford: Academic Press.
90.
Stough, C, Downey, L, Silber, B, et al. (2012) The effects of 90-day supplementation with the omega-3 essential fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on cognitive function and visual acuity in a healthy aging population. Neurobiol Aging
33, 824e1–824e3.
91.
Zhao, J, Gillam, ME, Taylor, CG, et al. (2011) Deposition of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is limited in forebrain of young obese fa/fa Zucker rats fed a diet high in α-linolenic acid but devoid of DHA. J Nutr Biochem
22, 835–842.
92.
Young, SE, Mainous, AG III & Carnemolla, M (2006) Hyperinsulinemia and cognitive decline in a middle-aged cohort. Diabetes Care
29, 2688–2693.
93.
Hashimoto, M, Katakura, M, Tanabe, Y, et al. (2015)
n-3 Fatty acids effectively improve the reference memory-related learning ability associated with increased brain docosahexaenoic acid-derived docosanoids in aged rats. Biochim Biophys Acta
1851, 203–209.
94.
Hashimoto, M, Tanabe, Y, Fujii, Y, et al. (2005) Chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid ameliorates the impairment of spatial cognition learning ability in amyloid β-infused rats. J Nutr
135, 549–555.
95.
Mills, JD, Hadley, K & Bailes, JE (2011) Dietary supplementation with the omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid in traumatic brain injury. Neurosurgery
68, 474–481.
96.
Fontani, G, Corradeschi, F, Felici, A, et al. (2005) Cognitive and physiological effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Invest
35, 691–699.
97.
Antypa, N, Van der Does, AJW, Smelt, AHM, et al. (2009) Omega-3 fatty acids (fish-oil) and depression-related cognition in healthy volunteers. J Psychopharmacol
23, 831–840.
98.
Jackson, PA, Deary, ME, Reay, JL, et al. (2012) No effect of 12 weeks’ supplementation with 1 g DHA-rich or EPA-rich fish oil on cognitive function or mood in healthy young adults aged 18–35 years. Br J Nutr
107, 1232–1243.
99.
Rogers, PJ, Appleton, KM, Kessler, D, et al. (2008) No effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (EPA and DHA) supplementation on depressed mood and cognitive function: a randomized controlled trial. Br J Nutr
99, 421–431.
100.
Leckie, RL, Manuck, SB, Bhattacharjee, N, et al. (2014) Omega-3 fatty acids moderate effects of physical activity on cognitive function. Neuropsychologia
59, 103–111.
101.
Chung, WL, Chen, JJ & Su, HM (2008) Fish oil supplementation of control and (n-3) fatty acid-deficient male rats enhances reference and working memory performance and increases brain regional docosahexaenoic acid levels. J Nutr
138, 1165–1171.
102.
Gamoh, S, Hashimoto, M, Sugioka, K, et al. (1999) Chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid improves reference memory-related learning ability in young rats. Neuroscience
93, 237–241.
103.
Ackman, RG, Ratnayake, WMN & Olsson, B (1988) The “basic” fatty acid composition of Atlantic fish oils: potential similarities useful for enrichment of polyunsaturated fatty acids by urea complexation. JAOCS
65, 136–138.
104.
Howe, P, Meyer, B, Record, S, et al. (2006) Dietary intake of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: contribution of meat sources. Nutrition
22, 47–53.
105.
Schuchardt, JP & Hahn, A (2013) Bioavailability of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids
89, 1–8.
106.
Harris, WS, Kris-Etherton, PM & Harris, KA (2008) Intakes of long chain omega-3 fatty acid associated with reduced risk for death from coronary heart disease in healthy adults. Curr Atheroscler Rep
10, 503–509.
107.
Afonso, C, Lourenço, HM, Cardoso, C, et al. (2013) From fish chemical characterisation to the benefit–risk assessment – Part A. Food Chem
137, 99–107.
108.
Afonso, C, Cardoso, C, Lourenço, HM, et al. (2013) Evaluation of hazards and benefits associated with the consumption of six fish species from the Portuguese coast. J Food Comp Anal
32, 59–67.
109.
Bandarra, NM, Batista, I, Nunes, ML, et al. (1997) Seasonal changes in lipid composition of sardine (Sardina pilchardus). J Food Sci
62, 40–42.
110.
Costa, S, Afonso, C, Cardoso, C, et al. (2015) Fatty acids, mercury, and methylmercury bioaccessibility in salmon (Salmo salar) using an in vitro model: effect of culinary treatment. Food Chem
185, 268–276.
111.
Nunes, ML, Bandarra, N, Oliveira, L, et al. (2006) Composition and nutritional value of fishery products consumed in Portugal. In Seafood Research from Fish to Dish Quality, Safety and Processing of Wild and Farmed Fish, pp. 477–487 [JB Luten, C Jacobsen, K Bekaert, A Saebø and J Oehlenschläger, editors]. Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publishers.
113.
Peinado, I, Girón, J, Koutsidis, G, et al. (2014) Chemical composition, antioxidant activity and sensory evaluation of five different species of brown edible seaweeds. Food Res Int
66, 36–44.
114.
Kris-Etherton, P, Harris, W, Appel, L, et al. (2002) Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. Circulation
106, 2747–2757.
115.
EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) (2010) Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for fats, including saturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, and cholesterol. EFSA J
8, 1461.
116.
EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) (2012) Scientific Opinion on the Tolerable Upper Intake Level of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA). EFSA J
10, 2815.
117.
ANSES (Agence nationale de sécurité sanitaire de l’alimentation, de l’environnement et du travail) (2010) Opinion of the French Food Safety Agency on the update of French population reference intakes (ANCs) for fatty acids. https://www.anses.fr/en/system/files/NUT2006sa0359EN.pdf
118.
Cardoso, C, Afonso, C, Lourenço, H, et al. (2015) Bioaccessibility assessment methodologies and their consequences for the risk-benefit evaluation of food. Trends Food Sci Technol
41, 5–23.
119.
Paustenbach, DJ (2000) The practice of exposure assessment: a state-of-the-art. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev
3, 179–291.
120.
Schumann, K, Classen, HG, Hages, M, et al. (1997) Bioavailability of oral vitamins, minerals and trace elements in perspective. Drug Res
47, 369–380.
121.
Versantvoort, CHM, Oomen, AG, Van de Kamp, E, et al. (2005) Applicability of an in vitro digestion model in assessing the bioaccessibility of mycotoxins from food. Food Chem Toxicol
43, 31–40.
122.
Minoo, P, Moyer, MP & Jass, JR (2007) Role of BRAF-V600E in the serrated pathway of colorectal tumourigenesis. J Pathol
212, 124–133.
123.
LeCluyse, EL, Witek, RP, Andersen, ME, et al. (2012) Organotypic liver culture models: meeting current challenges in toxicity testing. Crit Rev Toxicol
42, 501–548.
124.
Pawlosky, RJ, Hibbeln, JR, Novotny, JA, et al. (2001) Physiological compartmental analysis of α-linolenic acid metabolism in adult humans. J Lipid Res
42, 1257–1265.
125.
Plourde, M & Cunnane, SC (2007) Extremely limited synthesis of long chain polyunsaturates in adults: implications for their dietary essentiality and use as supplements. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab
32, 619–634.
126.
Igarashi, M, DeMar, JJC, Ma, K, et al. (2007) Docosahexaenoic acid synthesis from α-linolenic acid by rat brain is unaffected by dietary n-3 PUFA deprivation. J Lipid Res
48, 1150–1158.
127.
Brenna, JT (2002) Efficiency of conversion of α-linolenic acid to long chain n-3 fatty acids in man. Cur Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care
5, 127–132.
128.
Burdge, GC, Finnegan, YE, Minihane, AM, et al. (2003) Effect of altered dietary n-3 fatty aid intake upon plasma lipid fatty acid composition, conversion of [13C]α-linolenic acid to longer-chain fatty acids and partitioning towards β-oxidation in older men. Br J Nutr
90, 311–321.
129.
Tang, C, Cho, HP, Nakamura, MT, et al. (2003) Regulation of human Δ-6 desaturase gene transcription: identification of a functional direct repeat-1 element. J Lipid Res
44, 686–695.
130.
Makri, A, Bellou, S, Birkou, M, et al. (2011) Lipid synthesized by micro-algae grown in laboratory- and industrial-scale bioreactors. Eng Life Sci
11, 52–58.
131.
Patil, V, Källqvist, T, Olsen, E, et al. (2007) Fatty acid composition of 12 microalgae for possible use in aquaculture feed. Aquat Int
15, 1–9.
132.
Taoka, Y, Nagano, N, Okita, Y, et al. (2011) Effect of Tween 80 on the growth, lipid accumulation and fatty acid composition of Thraustochytrium aureum ATCC 34304. J Biosci Bioeng
111, 420–424.
133.
Fonollá, J, López-Huertas, E, Machado, FJ, et al. (2009) Milk enriched with “healthy fatty acids” improves cardiovascular risk markers and nutritional status in human volunteers. Nutrition
25, 408–414.
134.
Klop, G, Hatew, B, Bannink, A, et al. (2016) Feeding nitrate and docosahexaenoic acid affects enteric methane production and milk fatty acid composition in lactating dairy cows. J Dairy Sci
99, 1161–1172.
135.
Lemahieu, C, Bruneel, C, Ryckebosch, E, et al. (2015) Impact of different omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) sources (flaxseed, Isochrysis galbana, fish oil and DHA gold) on n-3 LC-PUFA enrichment (efficiency) in the egg yolk. J Funct Foods
19, 821–827.
136.
Woods, VB & Fearon, AM (2009) Dietary sources of unsaturated fatty acids for animals and their transfer into meat, milk, and eggs: a review. Livest Sci
126, 1–20.
137.
Zotte, A & Szendrö, Z (2011) The role of rabbit meat as functional food. Meat Sci
88, 319–331.
138.
Sobol, M, Skiba, G & Raj, S (2015) Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake on its deposition in the body of growing–finishing pigs. Anim Feed Sci Technol
208, 107–118.
139.
Delplanque, B, Du, Q, Agnani, G, et al. (2013) A dairy fat matrix providing α-linolenic acid (ALA) is better than a vegetable fat mixture to increase brain DHA accretion in young rats. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids
88, 115–120.
140.
Gibson, RA, Neumann, MA, Lien, EL, et al. (2013) Docosahexaenoic acid synthesis from α-linolenic acid is inhibited by diets high in polyunsaturated fatty acids. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids
88, 139–146.
141.
Goyens, PL, Spilker, ME, Zock, PL, et al. (2005) Compartmental modeling to quantify α-linolenic acid conversion after longer term intake of multiple tracer boluses. J Lipid Res
46, 1474–1483.
142.
Harnack, K, Anderson, G & Somoza, V (2009) Quantitation of α-linolenic acid elongation to eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid as affected by the ratio of n6/n3 fatty acids. Nutr Metab
6, 8.
143.
Hussein, N, Ah-Sing, E, Wilkinson, P, et al. (2005) Relative rates of long chain conversion of [13C]linoleic and α-linolenic acid in response to marked changes in their dietary intake in male adults. J Lipid Res
46, 269–280.
144.
Metherel, AH, Domenichiello, AF, Kitson, AP, et al. (2016) Whole-body DHA synthesis-secretion kinetics from plasma eicosapentaenoic acid and α-linolenic acid in the free-living rat. Biochim Biophys Acta
1867, 997–1004.
145.
James, MJ, Ursin, MV & Cleland, LG (2003) Metabolism of stearidonic acid in human subjects: comparison with the metabolism of other n-3 fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr
77, 1140–1145.
