Hostname: page-component-7dd5485656-dk7s8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-10-30T15:47:32.453Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Distribution and Status of the Asian Elephant

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 April 2009

Robert Olivier
Robert Olivier
Affiliation:
Department of Applied Biology, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3DX.
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

This comprehensive survey of the Asian elephant is the result of an FPS-sponsored project dating from 1973. The author is Co-Chairman with J.C. Daniel, Curator of the Bombay Natural History Society) of the Survival Service Commission's Asian Elephant Group, created in 1976. He discusses the history of man-elephant relationships in Asia, the animal's status in each country where it occurs, and the reasons both for its disappearance from most of its former range and for its continuing decline. Much of the information is based on reports direct from the field and, in the case of peninsular Malaysia, on the author's own observations while attached to the office of the Chief Game Warden of West Malaysia. He estimates that only 28,000-42,000 Asian elephants remain in the wild.

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
Oryx , Volume 14 , Issue 4 , November 1978 , pp. 379 - 424
Copyright
Copyright © Fauna and Flora International 1978

References

1.Abeyasinghe, T. 1966. Portuguese Rule in Ceylon. Lake House, Colombo.Google Scholar
2.Anon. 1971. The National Park situation in Laos. In: Packard, F. M. and Elliott, H. F. I. (eds.), Papers and Proceedings of the IUCN 11th Technical Meeting. IUCN New Series No. 19: 51–53.Google Scholar
3.Anon. 1976. Working People's Daily. June 4.Google Scholar
4.Anon. 1977. Pre-historic elephant fossil discovered. Nature and Science Newsletter No. 3Google Scholar
5.Anon. 1978. New Straits Times. April-May.Google Scholar
6.Baker, S. 1854.Google Scholar
7.Banks, E. 1931. A popular account of the mammals of Borneo. J. Malay. Br. Roy. As. Soc. 9: 228–236.Google Scholar
8.Bathew, W. 1978. In litt.Google Scholar
9.Baze, W. 1955. Just Elephants. Elek Books, London.Google Scholar
Boonsong, : see reference 80.Google Scholar
10.Borner, M. 1977. Status and ecology of the rhinoceros in Sumatra (unconfirmed title). PhD thesis, University of Basel.Google Scholar
11.John, Bradley 1876. A Narrative of Travel and Sport in Burmah, Siam, and the Malay Peninsula. London.Google Scholar
12.Burgess, P. F. 1961. Wildlife conservation in North Borneo. In: J., Wyatt-Smith and Wycherley, P. R. (eds.), Nature Conservation in Western Malaysia, 1961: 143–151. Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur.Google Scholar
13.Burkill, H. M. 1961. An elephant affair. Malay. Nat. J. 15: 163–167.Google Scholar
14.Burkill, I. H. 1966. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula, Vols. 1 and 2 Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur.Google Scholar
15.Butler, J. 1847. A Sketch of Assam by an Officer. Smith, Elder & Co., London.Google Scholar
16.Carpenter, C. R. 1938. A survey of wildlife conditions in Atjeh, North Sumatra. Med. Ned. Com. Intern. Nat. Bescherming 12: 39–72.Google Scholar
17.Champion, F. W. 1927. Wild elephants in the United Provinces. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 127–132.Google Scholar
18.Chang, H. 1926. On the question of the existence of elephants and rhinos in North China in historical times. Bull. Geol. Soc. China 5: 99–105.Google Scholar
19.Chasen, F. N. 1940. A handlist of Malaysian mammals (footnote 1, p. 190). Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore 15: 1–209.Google Scholar
20.Choudhury, L. 1977. In litt.Google Scholar
21.Choudhury, L. 1978. In litt.Google Scholar
22.Choudhury, S. R. 1977. In litt.Google Scholar
23.Dammerman, K. W. 1934. Prehistoric mammals from the Sampoeng cave, Central Java. Treubia: 477–486.Google Scholar
24.Davis, D. D. 1962. Mammals of the lowland rain-forest of North Borneo. Bull. National Mus. Singapore 31: 118.Google Scholar
25.Deraniyagala, P. E. P. 1950. The elephant of Asia. Proc. 5th Ann. Session Ceylon Ass. Sci., Vol. 3.Google Scholar
26.Deraniyagala, P. E. P. 1955. Some Extinct Elephants, Their Relatives and the Two Living Species. Ceylon National Museums Publication, Colombo.Google Scholar
27.Deraniyagala, P. E. P. 1960a. The elephant in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Spolia Zeylanica 29: 75–77.Google Scholar
28.Deraniyagala, P. E. P. 1960b. Some sub-specific characters of the elephants of India and Burma. Spolia Zeylanica 29: 243–245.Google Scholar
29.Deraniyagala, P. E. P. 1962. Tusk and tail variation in Elephas maximus Linn, and in Loxodonta africana Blum. Spolia Zeylanica 30: 85&86.Google Scholar
30.De Silva, G. S. 1968. Elephants of Sabah. Sabah Society Journal 34: 169–181.Google Scholar
31.De Silva, I. 1969. Man versus elephant in Ceylon. Loris 11: 250&255.Google Scholar
32.Digby, S. 1971. War Horse and Elephant. Oxford.Google Scholar
33.Dodsworth, P T. L. 1914. Notes on some mammals found in the Simla district, the Simla Hill States, and Kalka and adjacent country. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 22: 726–748.Google Scholar
34.Dorji, , 1977. In litt.Google Scholar
35.D'oyly, J. 1929. A Sketch of the Constitution of the Kandyan Kingdom. Colombo.Google Scholar
36.Elwes, H. J. 1916. Altitude to which elephants ascend. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 24: 355.Google Scholar
37.Erdbrink, D. P. 1961. Afragment of afossil molar of the Indian elephant from West Java. Mammalia 25: 401–408.Google Scholar
38.Flower, S. S. F. 1900. On the mammalia of Siam and the Malaya peninsula. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1900, Pt II: 306–378.Google Scholar
39.Foenander, E. C. 1952. Big Game of Malaya. Batchworth Press, London.Google Scholar
40.Foenander, E. C. 1961. The conservation of the Malayan elephant. In: J., Wyatt-Smith and Wycherley, P. R. (eds.), Nature Conservation in Western Malaysia, 1961: 192–196. Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur.Google Scholar
41.Fry, T. B. 1929. Bombay Natural History Society's mammal survey of India, Burmah, and Ceylon, Report No. 46 (suppl.). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 636–652.Google Scholar
42.Gadgil, M., Krishnamurthy, P. V.Nair, and Varadaraj, 1975. In litt.Google Scholar
43.Gerson, , 1975. In litt.Google Scholar
44.Groeneveldt, , 1880. Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca compiled from Chinese sources. Verh. Bat. Ger. 39.Google Scholar
45.Groeneveldt, W. 1938. Een overzicht van de vaste trekwegen vanolifanten in Zuid-Sumatra alsmede eenige gegerens over rhinocerossen. Med. Ned. Com. Intern. Nat. Beschirming 12: 75–109.Google Scholar
46.Habbema, D. 1934. Olifanten in Borneo. De Tropische Natuur 23, 9: 167–171.Google Scholar
47.Harrison, J. L. 1960. Review of Soondar Mooni by Shebbeare, E. O.. Malay. Nat. J. 14: 144–145.Google Scholar
48.Harrisson, T. 1961. Prehistoric fauna changes and losses in Borneo. In: J., Wyatt-Smith and Wycherley, P. R. (eds.), Nature Conservation in Western Malaysia, 1961: 89–92. Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur.Google Scholar
49.Hislop, J. A. 1961. The distribution of elephant, rhinoceros, seladang and tapir in Malaya's National Park. In: J., Wyatt-Smith and Wycherley, P. R. (eds.), Nature Conservation in Western Malaysia, 1961: 95–99. Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur.Google Scholar
50.Hoffmann, T. W. 1975. Elephants in Sri Lanka, their number and distribution. Loris 13, 5: 278–280.Google Scholar
51.Hooijer, D. A. 1972. Prehistoric evidence for Elephas maximus Linn, in Borneo. Nature 239: 228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
52.Hubback, T. R. 1905. Elephant and Seladang Hunting in Malaya. Rowland Ward, London.Google Scholar
53.Hubback, T. R. 1923. Game in Malaya. J. Soc. Pres. Fauna Empire New Series Pt III: 20–26.Google Scholar
54.Hubback, T. R. 1939. Wildlife Photography in the Malayan jungle. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 41: 48–64.Google Scholar
55.Hubback, T. R. 1942. The Malayan elephant. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 42: 483–509.Google Scholar
56.Hundley, , 1974. Pers. comm.Google Scholar
57.Hyams, E. 1972. Animals in the Service of Man: 10,000 years of domestication. J. M. Dent & Sons, London.Google Scholar
58.Iucn, 1977. The prize and peril in South East Asia. IUCN Bulletin New Series 8, 1.Google Scholar
59.Jardine, W. 1836. The Natural History of the Pachyderms, or Thick-skinned Quadrupeds. Edinburgh.Google Scholar
60.Jayal, , 1977. In litt.Google Scholar
61.Jainudeen, M. R., and Jayasinge, J. B. 1970. A census of the tame elephant population of Ceylon with reference to location and distribution. Ceylon J. Set. (Bio. Sci.) 8, 2: 63–68.Google Scholar
62.Jentinck, F. A. 1884. De olifant en rhinoceros op Borneo. Tijdschr. Kon. Ned. Aardrijksk. Genootschap 2: 554–559.Google Scholar
63.Jerdon, T. 1874. The Mammals of India: a natural history of all the animals known to inhabit continental India. Wheldon.Google Scholar
64.Jones, D. M. 1975. Elephant rescue in Sri Lanka. Oryx 13: 185–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
65.Karim, , 1974, 1977. Pers. comms.Google Scholar
66.Keith, , 1949. Regional Notes. North Borneo: elephants. Malay Forester.Google Scholar
67.Kelsall, H. J. 1894. Account of a trip up the Pahang, Tembeling, and Tahan rivers and an attempt to reach Gunong Tahan. J. Str. Br. Roy. As. Soc. 25: 33–57.Google Scholar
68.Khan, Mohd.Momin, Khan Bin 1965. Problems with the elephant and where it is in danger in the State of Perak. Malay. Nat. J. 19: 138–147.Google Scholar
69.Khan, Mohd.Momin, Khan Bin 1969. Population and distribution studies of Perak elephants. Malay. Nat. J. 23: 7–14.Google Scholar
70.Khan, Mohd.Momin, Khan Bin 1977. On the population and distribution of the Malayan elephant. Malay. Nat. J. 30: 1–13.Google Scholar
71.Khan, Mohd.Momin, Khan Bin, and Olivier, R. C. D. 1974. The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in West Malaysia. Its past, present, and future. IBP/MAB Synthesis Meeting, August. University of Malaya. Mimeo, 14 pp.Google Scholar
72.Knox, R. 1681. An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon, in the East Indies. 1958 reprint. Tisara Prakasakayo, Colombo.Google Scholar
73.Krishnan, M. 1972. An ecological survey of the larger mammals of peninsular India. The Indian elephant Elephas maximus Linn. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 297–321.Google Scholar
74.Kunstadter, P. 1970. Subsistence agricultural economics of Lua and Karen hill farmers of Mae Sarieng district. In: International Seminar on Shifting Cultivation and Economic Development in Northern Thailand: 47–144.Google Scholar
75.Kurt, F. 1969. Ceylon Elephanten. Freunde des Kölner Zoo 12, 2: 35–44.Google Scholar
76.Kurt, F. 1970. Elephant. In: Final Report to IUCN/SSC and WWF International of Project 596: Leuser Reserve (Sumatra): 71–77. Mimeo.Google Scholar
77.Lahan, P., and Sonowal, R. N. 1973. Kaziranga Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 245–278.Google Scholar
78.Laufer, B. 1925. Ivory in China. Field Museum of Natural History Department of Anthropology, Chicago. Leaflet No. 21.Google Scholar
79.Laurie, A., and C., McDougall 1977. Pers. comm.Google Scholar
80.Boonsong, Lekagul 1978. In litt.Google Scholar
81.Boonsong, Lekagul, and McNeely, J. A. 1977. Elephants in Thailand: importance, status, and conservation. Tigerpaper 4, 3: 22–25.Google Scholar
82.Low, , 1836. Cited by Burkill 1966.Google Scholar
83.Lydekker, R. 1914. The Malay race of the Indian elephant, Elephas maximus hirsutus. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1914, Pt II: 285–288.Google Scholar
84.Lydekker, R. 1924. In: Dollman, J. G. (ed.), Game Animals of India, Burma, Malaya, and Tibet. Rowland Ward, London.Google Scholar
85.Mckay, G. M. 1973. Behaviour and ecology of the Asiatic Elephant in Southeastern Ceylon. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology: 125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
86.Mackinnon, J. R. 1973. Orang-utans in Sumatra. Oryx 12: 234–242.Google Scholar
87.Mcneely, J. A. 1975a. Draft Report on Wildlife and National Parks in the Lower Mekong Basin. Mekong Committee, ECAFE: 191 pp.Google Scholar
88.McNeely, J. A. 1975b. In litt.Google Scholar
89.Maarel, V. D. 1932. Contribution to the knowledge of the fossil mammalian fauna of Java. Wet. Med. Dierst. Mijnb. Ned. Ind. No. 15.Google Scholar
90.Marshall, H. 1846. Ceylon—a general description of the island and its inhabitants. 1969 reprint. Tisara Prakasakayo, Colombo.Google Scholar
91.Maxwell, W. G. 1905. Mantra Gajah. J. Straits Br. Roy. As. Soc. 45: 1–53.Google Scholar
92.Lord, Medway 1965. Mammals of Borneo. Malaysian Branch, Royal Asiatic Society.Google Scholar
93.Mishra, J. 1971. An assessment of annual damage to crops by elephants in Palamau district, Bihar. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 68: 307–310.Google Scholar
94.Morris, R. C. 1936. The Vernay-Hopwood Upper Chindwin Expedition. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 647–671.Google Scholar
95.Mouhout, H. 1864. Travels in the Central Parts of Indochina. 2 vols. John Murray, London.Google Scholar
96.Muller, W. C. 1916. Olifanten op Borneo. Kolon. Weekblad No. 5.Google Scholar
97.Nair, P. V., and M., Gadgil 1978. Status and distribution of elephant populations of Karnataka: 24 pp. Mimeo.Google Scholar
98.Nair, S. S. C, Nair, P. V., Sharatchandra, H. C. and M., Gadgil 1976. An ecological reconnaissance of the proposed Jawahar National Park. Technical report, Centre for Theoretical Studies, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. Mimeo.Google Scholar
99.Nguyen, Van Hep 1971. Rapport sur la situation de la conservation au Vietnam en 1969. In: Packard, F. M. and Elliott, H. F. I. (eds.), Papers and Proceedings of the IUCN 1 lth Technical Meeting. IUCN New Series No. 19: 54–62.Google Scholar
100.Nicholas, C. W. 1954. The Ceylon elephant in antiquity: (i) The Sinhalese period, (ii) The Portuguese, Dutch and British periods. Ceylon Forester 1: 52–58, 103–111.Google Scholar
101.Nicholas, C. W. 1955. The present status of the elephant in Ceylon. Ceylon Forester 2: 38–40.Google Scholar
102.Norris, C. E. 1959. Part 1— Preliminary Report on the Ceylon Elephant Field Survey. Wildlife Protection Society, Colombo.Google Scholar
103.Nowak, R. M. 1976. Wildlife of Indochina: tragedy or opportunity? National Parks & Conservation Magazine June: 13–18.Google Scholar
104.Oldfield, H. A. 1880. Sketches from Nepal. W. H. Allen, London.Google Scholar
105.Olivier, R. C. D. 1973a-d. Monthly reports to the Game Department, (a) September—(d) December. Elephant Research Project. Mimeo.Google Scholar
106.Olivier, R. C. D. 1974a-e. As above, (a) January—(e) May.Google Scholar
107.Olivier, R. C. D. 1974f-j. As above, (f) June—(j) October.Google Scholar
108.Olivier, R. C. D. 1974k. The behaviour and ecology of the elephant in W. Malaysia. First annual progress report to the Nuffield Foundation. Mimeo.Google Scholar
109.Olivier, R. C. D. 1976. Science and tradition combine to save Jengka's threatened elephants. New Straits Times Annual: 115–119. Berita Publishing, Kuala Lumpur.Google Scholar
110.Olivier, R. C. D. 1977a. Project Leader's report on activities between July and December 1976. The Smithsonian Ceylon Elephant Ecology Project. Mimeo.Google Scholar
111.Olivier, R. C. D. 1977b. Report to the Director, Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka. Mimeo.Google Scholar
112.Olivier, R. C. D. 1977c. Study of pocketed elephant herds in Sri Lanka, with reference to solution of the problem. Report to IUCN/WWF. Mimeo.Google Scholar
113.Olivier, R. C. D. 1978. On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus Linn.): with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka. PhD thesis, University of Cambridge.Google Scholar
114.Peacock, E. H. 1933. A Game Book for Burma and Adjoining Territories. H. F. and G. Witherby, London.Google Scholar
115. “Pelandok, ” 1949. The Dura elephants. Malay Forester 12: 190–193.Google Scholar
116.Pfeffer, P. 1975. In litt.Google Scholar
117.Phillips, W. W. A. 1929. The present state of the game and wildlifein Ceylon. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 942–956.Google Scholar
118.Phillips, W. W. A. 1955. Elephants in relation to agriculture and settlement. Ceylon Forester 2: 32–33.Google Scholar
119.Phookun, B. 1975. Pers. comm.Google Scholar
120.Pieris, P. E. 1918. Ceylon and the Hollanders, 1658–1796. Tellipalai.Google Scholar
121.Pollock, A. J. O. 1894. Sporting Days in Southern India: being reminiscences of twenty trips in pursuit of big game chiefly in the Madras Presidency. Horace Cox, London.Google Scholar
122.Marco, Polo 1968 edition. The Travels of Marco Polo, translated and introduced by R., Latham. London.Google Scholar
123.Poniran, S. 1974. Elephants in Aceh, Sumatra. Oryx 12: 576–580.Google Scholar
124.Poulier, R. S. V. 1955. Protection of crops against wild elephants. Ceylon Forester 2: 34–37.Google Scholar
125.Ranjitsinh, M. K. 1977. In litt.Google Scholar
126.Ranjitsinh, M. K. 1978.Google Scholar
127.Rao, H. S. 1957. History of our knowledge of the Indian fauna through the ages. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 251–280.Google Scholar
128.Rappard, F. W. 1946. Olifanten als sleepvee. Tectona 36: 274–281.Google Scholar
129.Ridley, H. N. 1894. Account of a trip up the Pahang, Tembeling, and Tahan rivers and an attempt to reach Gunong Tahan. J. Str. Br. Roy. As. Soc. 25: 57–67.Google Scholar
130.Ryley, K. V. 1913. Bombay Natural History Society's Mammal Survey of India, Report No. 10. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 22: 464–513.Google Scholar
131.Ryley, K. V. 1914. As above, Report No. 14. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 22: 710–725.Google Scholar
132.Sanderson, G. P. 1878. Thirteen Years Among the Wild Beasts of India: their haunts and habits from personal observation, with an account of the modes of capturing and taming elephants. W. H. Allen, London.Google Scholar
133.Seidenfaden, E. 1967. The Thai Peoples. Siam Society, Bangkok.Google Scholar
134.Seshadri, B. 1969. The Twilight of India's Wildlife. Baker.Google Scholar
135.Shahi, S. P. 1977. Backs to the Wall: saga of wildlife in Bihar, India. Affiliated East-West Press, New Delhi.Google Scholar
136.Singh, V. B. 1969. The elephant (Elephas maximus Linn.) in Uttar Pradesh, India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 239–250.Google Scholar
137.Singh, V. B. in press. The elephant in Uttar Pradesh, India: a re-survey of their status after 10 years. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.Google Scholar
138.Sinha, M. K., Lahiri Choudhury, D. K. and Kumar, A. 1977. Elephants of the Dhalbum Forest Division. Report of a preliminary survey. Mimeo.Google Scholar
139.Smith, H. C. 1944. Wildlife Protection in Burma. Public Relations Department, Government of Burma, Simla.Google Scholar
140.Stevens, W. E. 1968. The rare large mammals of Malaya. Malay. Nat. J. 22: 3–9.Google Scholar
141.Storey, H. 1907. Hunting and Shooting in Ceylon. London.Google Scholar
142.Stracey, P. D. 1963. Elephant Gold. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London.Google Scholar
143.Stracey, P. D. 1977. Pers. comm.Google Scholar
144.Stracey, P. D. and Wright, A. 1977. Pers. comm.Google Scholar
145.Temminck, , 1847. Coup-de-oeil sur les Possessions Nederlands dans l'Inde Archipelagique II: p.91 (Sumatra).Google Scholar
146.Tennent, J. E. 1867. The Wild Elephant and the method of capturing and taming it in Ceylon. London.Google Scholar
147.Thom, W. S. 1914. A few notes on the wild goats and ferae nature of northern Arakan, Burma. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 23: 148.Google Scholar
148.Tschirley, F. H. 1969. Defoliation in Vietnam. Science 163: 779–786.Google Scholar
149.Aung, U Hla 1977. In litt.Google Scholar
150.Yin, U Tun 1956. Wild elephants of Burma. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 175–178.Google Scholar
151.Yin, U Tun 1959. Wild elephants in Burma. The Burmese Forester 9, 2.Google Scholar
152.Yin, U Tun 1967. The elephant. In: Wild Animals of Burma: 130–143. Rangoon Gazette Ltd, Rangoon.Google Scholar
153.Yin, U Tun 1972. Elephants in captivity in Burma. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 646–647.Google Scholar
154.Yin, U Tun 1973. In litt.Google Scholar
155.Yin, U Tun 1974. Pers. comm.Google Scholar
156.Valentijn, , 1651.Google Scholar
157.Van Der Meer Mohr, J. C. 1932. Olifanten op Borneo. De Tropische Natuur 21: 211.Google Scholar
158.Van Heurn, F. C. 1929. Die Olifanten van Sumatra. Drukkerij Gerretsen, Den Haag.Google Scholar
159.Van Heurn, F. C. 1937. Eerste registratie van de kudden olifanten, die voorkomen op Sumatra's Oostkust, Westkust en Tapanoeli en van gegevens die daarop betrekking hebben. Med. Ned. Comm. Int. Nat. Bescherming 11: 66–78.Google Scholar
160.Van Strien, N. J. 1975. Bibliography on the Indian elephant (Elephas maximus). Nature Conservation Department, Agriculture University, Wageningen, Netherlands.Google Scholar
161.Venkataramany, P. 1961. Handbook of Indian Forest Statistics, 1957–1958. Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.Google Scholar
162.Walker, E. L. 1923. Elephant Hunting and Shooting in Ceylon. London.Google Scholar
163.Weatherbe, D'A. 1940. Burma's decreasing wildlife. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 42: 150–160.Google Scholar
164.Westerman, J. 1939. Natuur in Zuid en Oost Borneo. 3 jaren Indisch Natuurleven. Ned. Ind. Ver. tot Nat. Bescherming: 334–411.Google Scholar
165.Whittaker, R. 1976. Pers. comm.Google Scholar
166.Wickremasinge, D. M. deZ. 1928. The slab inscription of Kirti-Nissanka-Malla (1187 to 1196 AD) at Ruvanvalidagaba, Anuradhapura. Epigraphia Zeylanica 2: 82–83.Google Scholar
167.Williams, J. H. 1950. Elephant Bill. Rupert Hart-Davis, London.Google Scholar
168.Witkamp, H. 1932. Het voorkomen van eenige diersoorten in het landschap Koetai. De Tropische Natuur 21: 169–177.Google Scholar
169.Wright, A. 1976. In litt:Google Scholar
170.Wright, A. 1977. Pers. comm.Google Scholar
171.Wroughton, R. C. 1913. Bombay Natural History Society's Mammal Survey of India. Report. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 22: 29–44.Google Scholar
172.Wroughton, R. C. 1915. Bombay Natural History Society's Mammal Survey of India, Burma and Ceylon. Report No. 17. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 23: 695'720.Google Scholar
173.IUCN 1978. Red Data Book, Vol. 1, Mammalia. Sheet code 15.113.2.1. Morges.Google Scholar
174.Medway, , Lord, 1965. Game statistics for Malaya, 1960–1963. Malay. Nat. J. 19: 223–234.Google Scholar
175.Hoogerwerf, A. 1974. In litt.Google Scholar
176.Chen-Luang, Shou et al. . 1964. Economic Fauna of China: Mammals. Science Publishing House, Peking.Google Scholar