Hostname: page-component-84b7d79bbc-g7rbq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-26T21:21:50.308Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Remarks on Concept Formation: Theory Building and Theory Testing

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 March 2022

Joseph M. Firestone
Joseph M. Firestone*
Affiliation:
State University of New York at Binghamton
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Concepts originating in the philosophy of science generally are used only ritualistically and in careful isolation from research practice in political science. But philosophical considerations are fundamental to political research, and critically influence its decisions. The question is whether ideas offered by philosophers of science have practical (that is to say, theoretical) significance for political researchers. This essay argues that philosophy of science has extremely relevant ideas to offer. The argument proceeds through an initial presentation of some elementary notions drawn from reconstructions of the nature of concept formation-theory construction. These are then utilized in a critique of the research of quantitative political scientists. Three rather central concerns of this, still very young, discipline are discussed: measurement problems, the use of recursive and structural systems in causal modeling, and the primary logical function of multivariate analysis in political studies. The discussion is viewed as supporting the general point that applied philosophy of science ought to be, not an adjunct, but one of the key critical contributors to political research.

Type
Research Article
Information
Philosophy of Science , Volume 38 , Issue 4 , December 1971 , pp. 570 - 604
Copyright
Copyright © 1971 by The Philosophy of Science Association

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

†

Original version prepared for delivery at the Sixty-Sixth Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Biltmore Hotel, Los Angeles, California, September 8-12, 1970. Research for this paper was supported by Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Buffalo, New York.

‡

The initial draft of this paper benefited greatly from the views of N. Morse, R. Greenberg, S. Zobel, E. W. Roth, and S. Kaufman of Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory. For their careful readings and criticism of the first draft I would like to thank R. Chadwick of Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory and Harvard University, Professor R. Hanson, University of Georgia, Professors D. Braybrooke and M. Rosenberg of Dalhousie University, and Professor H. Simon of Carnegie-Mellon University. Of course I alone am responsible for the views stated here.

References

[1] Ahmavaara, Y. On the Unified Factor Theory of Mind. Helsinki: 1957.Google Scholar
[2] Alker, H. R. Jr. “Causal Inference and Political Analysis.” Mathematical Applications in Political Science, II. Edited by Bernd, J. L. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1966.Google Scholar
[3] Alker, H. R. Jr. “The Long Road to International Relations Theory: Problems of Statistical Nonadditivity.” World Politics 18 (1966): 623–655.10.2307/2009808CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[4] Alker, H. R. Jr. “Statistics and Politics, the Need for Causal Data Analysis.” Politics and the Social Sciences. Edited by Lipset, S. M. New York: Free Press, 1969.Google Scholar
[5] Anderson, T. W. An Introduction to Multivariate Statistical Analysis. New York: John Wiley, 1958.Google Scholar
[6] Barker, S. F. “The Role of Simplicity in Explanation.” Current Issues in the Philosophy of Science. Edited by Feigl, and Maxwell, . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961.Google Scholar
[7] Barrett, R. “On the Conclusive Falsification of Scientific Hypotheses.” Philosophy of Science 36 (1969): 363–374.10.1086/288268CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[8] Bell, R. “Political Power: The Problem of Measurement.” Political Power: A Reader in Theory and Research. Edited by Bell, R., Edwards, D. V., and Wagner, R. H. New York: Free Press, 1969.Google Scholar
[9] Blalock. Causal Inference in Non-Experimental Research. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961.Google Scholar
[10] Borock, D. C. “Dimensions of Domestic and Foreign Conflict.” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1968.Google Scholar
[11] Braithewaite, R. B. Scientific Explanation. New York: Harper, 1953.Google Scholar
[12] Brams, S. J. “Measuring the Concentration of Power in Political Systems.” American Political Science Review 62 (1968): 461–475.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[13] Brams, S. J. “The Structure of Influence Relationships in the International System,” rev. ed. International Politics and Foreign Policy. Edited by Rosenau, J. New York: The Free Press, 1969.Google Scholar
[14] Brodbeck, M. “Models, Meaning, and Theories.” Symposium on Sociological Theory. Edited by Gross, L. Evanston, Ill.: Row, Peterson, 1959.Google Scholar
[15] Brodbeck, M., ed. Readings in the Philosophy of the Social Sciences. New York: MacMillan, 1968.Google Scholar
[16] Bunge, M. Causality. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959.Google Scholar
[17] Butts, R. E. “Feyerabend and the Pragmatic Theory of Observation.” Philosophy of Science 33 (1966): 383–394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[18] Byerly, H. C. “Professor Nagel on the Cognitive Status of Scientific Theories.” Philosophy of Science 35 (1968): 412–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[19] Carnap, R. Logical Foundations of Probability. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950.Google Scholar
[20] Cattell, R. B., ed. Handbook of Multivariate Experimental Psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1966.Google Scholar
[21] Chadwick, R. W. “A Partial Model of National Political Economic Systems: Evaluation by Causal Inference Methods.” Systems Development Corporation Report. Santa Monica, 1968.Google Scholar
[22] Choucri, N. and North, R. C. “The Determinants of International Violence.” Peace Research Society Papers 12 (1969): 33–63.Google Scholar
[23] Christ, C. F. Econometric Models and Methods. New York: Wiley, 1966.Google Scholar
[24] Churchman, C. W. Prediction and Optimal Decision: Philosophical Issues of a Science of Values. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1961.Google Scholar
[25] Churchman, C. W. and Ratoosh, P., eds. Measurement: Definitions and Theories. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1959.Google Scholar
[26] Cnudde, C. F. and McCrone, D. J. “The Linkage between Constituency Attitudes and Congressional Voting Behavior: A Causal Model.” American Political Science Review 60 (1966).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[27] Cohen, J. “Multiple Regression as a General Data Analytic System.” Psychological Bulletin 70 (1968): 426–443.10.1037/h0026714CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[28] Cooley, W. W. and Lohnes, P. R. Multivariate Procedures for the Behavioral Sciences. New York: John Wiley, 1962.Google Scholar
[29] Deskins, W. E. Abstract Algebra. New York: MacMillan, 1964.Google Scholar
[30] Duhem, P. The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[31] Ellis, B. Basic Concepts of Measurement. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966.Google Scholar
[32] Feyerabend, P. K. “Problems of Empiricism.” Beyond the Edge of Certainty. University of Pittsburgh series in the Philosophy of Science, vol. 2, pp. 145–260. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1965.Google Scholar
[33] Firestone, J. M. and McCormick, D. “An Exploration in Systems Analysis of Domestic Conflict.” Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory Report No. VO-2653-G-1. Buffalo: 1969.Google Scholar
[34] Firestone, J. M. and Oliva, G. “National Motives and National Attributes: A Cross-time Analysis.” Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory Report No. VO-2653-G-3. Buffalo: 1969.Google Scholar
[35] Goldberg, A. S. American Political Science Review 63 (1969): 1247–1262.Google Scholar
[36] Goldberger, A. S. Econometric Theory. New York: Wiley, 1964.Google Scholar
[37] Goodman, N. The Structure of Appearance. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951.Google Scholar
[38] Gregor, A. J. American Political Science Review 63 (1969): 1247–1262.Google Scholar
[39] Grünbaum, A. Philosophical Problems of Space and Time. New York: Knopf, 1963.Google Scholar
[40] Gunnell, J. G. “Deduction, Explanation, and Social Scientific Inquiry.” American Political Science Review 63 (1969): 1233–1246.Google Scholar
[41] Hass, M. “Dimensional Analysis in Cross-national Research.” Comparative Political Studies 3 (1970): 3–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[42] Haas, M. “Social Change and National Aggressiveness, 1900-1960.” Quantitative International Politics. Edited by Singer, J. D. New York: Free Press, 1968.Google Scholar
[43] Harman, H. Modern Factor Analysis. rev. ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967.Google Scholar
[44] Hempel, C. G. and Oppenheim, P. “The Logic of Explanation.” Philosophy of Science 15 (1948): 135–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[45] Hempel, C. G. “Fundamentals of Concept Formation in Empirical Science.” International Encyclopedia of Unified Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952.Google Scholar
[46] Hempel, C. G. Aspects of Scientific Explanation. New York: Free Press, 1965.Google Scholar
[47] Hempel, C. G. “The Theoretician's Dilemma.” Aspects of Scientific Explanation. New York: Free Press, 1965.Google Scholar
[48] Hempel, C. G. “Maximal Specificity and Lawlikeness in Probabilistic Explanation.” Philosophy of Science 35 (1968): 116–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[49] Hurley, J. R. and Cattell, R. B. “The Procrustes Program: Producing Direct Rotation to Test a Hypothesized Factor Structure.” Behavioral Science 7 (1962): 258–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[50] Johnston, J. Econometric Methods. New York: McGraw Hill, 1963.Google Scholar
[51] Kant, I. Critique of Pure Reason. New York: Macmillan, St. Martin's, 1968.Google Scholar
[52] Kaplan, A. The Conduct of Inquiry. San Francisco: Chandler, 1964.Google Scholar
[53] Kaplan, A. “Definition and Specification of Meaning.” Journal of Philosophy 43 (1946).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[54] Kuhn, T. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962.Google Scholar
[55] Lancaster, K. Mathematical Economics. New York: MacMillan, 1968.Google Scholar
[56] Lewis, C. I. Mind and the World Order. New York: Dover, 1929.Google Scholar
[57] Lewis, C. I. Analysis of Knowledge and Evaluation. La Salle: Open Court, 1946.Google Scholar
[58] McClelland, C. A. and Hoggard, G. D. “Conflict Patterns in the Interactions Among Nations.” International Politics and Foreign Policy. Edited by Rosenau, J. New York: Free Press, 1969.Google Scholar
[59] Meehan, E. J. The Theory and Method of Political Analysis. Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey Press, 1965.Google Scholar
[60] Milstein, J. S. and Mitchell, W. C. “Computer Simulation of International Processes: The Vietnam War and the Pre-World War I Naval Race.” Peace Research Society Papers 12(1969): 117–136.Google Scholar
[61] Mitchell, E. J. “Some Econometrics of the Huk Rebellion.” American Political Science Review 63 (1969): 1159–1171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[62] Morrison, D. F. Multivariate Statistical Methods. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.Google Scholar
[63] Nagel, E. The Structure of Science. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1961.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[64] Noble, B. Applied Linear Algebra. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969.Google Scholar
[65] Paige, L. J. and Swift, J. D. Elements of Linear Algebra. Boston: Ginn & Company, 1961.Google Scholar
[66] Palumbo, D. “Causal Inference and Indeterminacy in Political Behaviour: Some Theoretical and Statistical Problems.” Paper prepared for delivery at the 65th Annual APSA meeting, New York City, September, 1969.Google Scholar
[67] Phillips, W. R. “Dynamic Patterns of International Conflict.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dimensionality of Nations Project, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1969.Google Scholar
[68] Phillips, W. R. and Hall, D. R. “The Importance of Governmental Structure as a Taxonomic Scheme for Nations.” Comparative Political Studies 3 (1970): 63–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[69] Poincare, H. La Science at L'hypothese. Paris, 1902.Google Scholar
[70] Quine, W. V. “Two Dogmas of Empiricism.” From a Logical Point of View. New York: Harper and Row, 1963.Google Scholar
[71] Quinn, P. C. “The Status of the D-Thesis.” Philosophy of Science 36 (1969): 381–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[72] Rudner, R. S. Philosophy of Social Science. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1966.Google Scholar
[73] Rummel, R. J. Applied Factor Analysis. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1970.Google Scholar
[74] Rummel, R. J. “Indicators of Cross-National and International Patterns.” American Political Science Review 63 (1969): 127–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[75] Rummel, R. J. “The Relationship between National Attributes and Foreign Conflict Behavior.” Quantitative International Politics. Edited by Singer, J. D. New York: Free Press, 1968.Google Scholar
[76] Rummel, R. J. “Understanding Factor Analysis.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 11 (1967).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[77] Rummel, R. J. “A Field Theory of Social Action with Application to Conflict within Nations.” Yearbook of the Society for General Systems Research 10 (1965): 183–204.Google Scholar
[78] Rummel, R. J. “Oblique Rotated Factor Tables for 236 Variables.” Dimensionality of Nations Project, March 1, 1965. Mimeographed.Google Scholar
[79] Rummel, R. J. “Testing Some Possible Predicators of Conflict Behavior within and between Nations.” Peace Research Society Papers 1 (1963): 79–111.Google Scholar
[80] Rummel, R. J. “Dimensions of Conflict within and between Nations.” Yearbook of the Society for General Systems Research 8 (1963): 1–50.Google Scholar
[81] Russett, B. M. “Delineating International Regions.” Quantitative International Politics. Edited by Singer, J. D. New York: Free Press, 1968.Google Scholar
[82] Scheffler, I. “Explanation, Prediction and Abstraction.” The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 7 (1957): 293–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[83] Scriven, M. “The Temporal Asymmetry between Explanations and Predictions.” Philosophy of Science: The Delaware Seminar, vol. 1, 161–62. Edited by B. Baumrin. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1963.Google Scholar
[84] Scriven, M. “Explanations, Predictions, and Laws.” Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol. 3, pp. 170–230. Edited by H. Feigl and G. Maxwell. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1962.Google Scholar
[85] Scriven, M. “Truisms as the Grounds for Historical Explanation.” Theories of History. Edited by Gardiner, P. Glencoe: Free Press, 1959.Google Scholar
[86] Sellars, W. “The Language of Theories.” Current Issues in the Philosophy of Science. Edited by Feigl, and Maxwell, . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961.Google Scholar
[87] Simon, H. A. “Causal Ordering and Identifiability.” Models of Man. New York: Wiley, 1957.Google Scholar
[88] Simon, H. A. “Spurious Correlation: A Causal Interpretation.” Models of Man. New York: Wiley, 1957.Google Scholar
[89] Simon, H. A. “On the Definition of the Causal Relation.” Models of Man. New York: Wiley, 1957.Google Scholar
[90] Simon, H. A. Models of Man. New York: Wiley, 1957.Google Scholar
[91] Singer, J. D., ed. Quantitative International Politics. New York: Free Press, 1969.Google Scholar
[92] Singer, J. D. and Small, M. “National Alliance Commitments and National War Involvement.” Peace Research Society Papers 5 (1966): 109–140.Google Scholar
[93] Tanter, R. “Toward a Theory of Political Development.” Midwest Journal of Political Science 11 (1967): 145–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
[94] Tanter, R. “Dimensions of Conflict Behavior Within and Between Nations, 1958-60.” Ph.D. Dissertation, Indiana University, 1964.Google Scholar
[95] Toulmin, S. Philosophy of Science. New York: Harper Torch Books, 1960.Google Scholar
[96] von Wright, G. H. The Logical Problem of Induction. New York: MacMillan, 1957.Google Scholar
[97] Wedeking, G. “Duhem, Quine, and Grünbaum on Falsification.” Philosophy of Science 36 (1969): 375–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar