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³⁵ The research for this paper was supported by a British Academy Fellowship and an Alexander von Humboldt Foundation Fellowship. I wish to thank both organizations for their help. I owe a particular intellectual debt to Dr Florian von Schilcher, of the Institut für Zoologie in Munich, for many hours of discussion on the topics of this paper. I have also benefited from comments by Vinit Haksar, Peter Jones, Mary Midgley and members of the philosophy societies at the University of Edinburgh and University College, London.