Hostname: page-component-66d9dcfd78-stj4p Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-08-09T13:39:24.828Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Exercise and immune function: effect of ageing and nutrition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 February 2007

Bente Klarlund Pedersen ,
Helle Bruunsgaard ,
Marianne Jensen ,
Karen Krzywkowski  and
Kenneth Ostrowski
Bente Klarlund Pedersen*
Affiliation:
The Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre and Department of Infectious Diseases, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
Helle Bruunsgaard
Affiliation:
The Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre and Department of Infectious Diseases, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
Marianne Jensen
Affiliation:
The Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre and Department of Infectious Diseases, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
Karen Krzywkowski
Affiliation:
The Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre and Department of Infectious Diseases, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
Kenneth Ostrowski
Affiliation:
The Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre and Department of Infectious Diseases, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
*
*Corresponding Author: Dr Bente Klarlund Pedersen, fax +45 3545 6648, email bkp@rh.dk
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the 'Save PDF' action button.

Strenuous exercise is followed by lymphopenia, neutrophilia, impaired natural immunity, decreased lymphocyte proliferative responses to mitogens, a low level of secretory immunoglobulin A in saliva, but high circulating levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. These exercise-induced immune changes may provide the physiological basis of altered resistance to infections. The mechanisms underlying exercise-induced immune changes are multifactorial and include neuroendocrinological and metabolic mechanisms. Nutritional supplementation with glutamine abolishes the exercise-induced decline in plasma glutamine, but does not influence post-exercise immune impairment. However, carbohydrate loading diminishes most exercise effects of cytokines, lymphocyte and neutrophils. The diminished neutrophilia and elastase (EC 3.4.21.37) responses to eccentric exercise in elderly subjects were enhanced to levels comparable with those of young subjects by fish oil or vitamin E supplements. However, although vitamin C supplementation may diminish the risk of contracting an infection after strenuous exercise, it is not obvious that this effect is linked to an effect of vitamin C on exercise-induced immune changes. In conclusion, it is premature to make recommendations regarding nutritional supplementation to avoid post-exercise impairment of the immune system.

Keywords

ExerciseTrainingImmune functionLymphocytes

Information

Type
Symposium on ’Nutrition, infection and immunity‘
Information
Proceedings of the Nutrition Society , Volume 58 , Issue 3 , August 1999 , pp. 733 - 742
Copyright
Copyright © The Nutrition Society 1999

References

Armstrong, RB (1990) Initial events in exercise-induced muscular injury. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 22, 429–435.Google Scholar
Babior, BM (1984) Oxidants from phagocytes: agents of defense and destruction. Blood 64, 959–966.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baj, Z, Kantorski, J, Majewska, E, Zeman, K, Pokoca, L, Fornalczyk, E, Tchorzewski, H, Sulowska, Z & Lewicki, R (1994) Immunological status of competitive cyclists before and after the training season. International Journal of Sports Medicine 15, 319–324.Google Scholar
Batory, G, Benczur, M, Varga, M, Garam, T, Onody, C & Petranyi, GG (1981) Increased killer cell activity in aged humans. Immunobiology 158, 393–402.Google Scholar
Bell, EB, Spartshott, S & Bunce, C (1998) CD4+ T cell memory, CD45R subsets and the persistence of antigen - a unifying concept. Immunology Today 19, 60–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bengtsson, M, Totterman, TH, Smedmyr, B, Festin, R, Oberg, G & Simonsson, B (1989) Regeneration of functional and activated NK and T subset cells in the marrow and blood after autologous bone marrow transplantation: a prospective phenotypic study with 2/3-color FACS analysis. Leukemia 3, 68–75.Google Scholar
Benquet, C, Krzystyniak, K, Savard, R & Guertin, F (1994) Modulation of exercise-induced immunosuppression by dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids in mice. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 43, 225–237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ben-Yehuda, A & Weksler, ME (1992) Immune senescence: mechanisms and clinical implications. Cancer Investigation 10, 525–531.Google Scholar
Brines, R, Hoffman-Goetz, L & Pedersen, BK (1996) Can you exercise to make your immune system fitter? Immunology Today 17, 252–254.Google Scholar
Bruunsgaard, H, Andersen-Ranberg, K, Jeune, B, Pedersen, AN, Skinhj, P & Pedersen, BK (1999) A high plasma concentration of TNFalpha is associated with dementia in centenarians. Journal of Gerontology (In the Press).Google Scholar
Bruunsgaard, H, Galbo, H, Halkjaer-Kristensen, J, Johansen, TL, MacLean, DA & Pedersen, BK (1997 a) Exercise-induced increase in interleukin-6 is related to muscle damage. Journal of Physiology 499, 833–841.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruunsgaard, H, Hartkopp, A, Mohr, T, Konradsen, H, Heron, I, Mordhorst, CH & Pedersen, BK (1997 b) In vivo cell mediated immunity and vaccination response following prolonged, intense exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 29, 1176–1181.Google Scholar
Calder, PC (1998) Fat chance of immunomodulation. Immunology Today 19, 244–247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon, JG, Evans, WJ, Hughes, VA, Meredith, CN & Dinarello, CA (1986) Physiological mechanisms contributing to increased interleukin-1 secretion. Journal of Applied Physiology 61, 1869–1874.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon, JG, Fiatarone, MA, Meydani, M, Gong, J, Scott, L, Blumberg, JB & Evans, WJ (1995) Aging and dietary modulation of elastase and interleukin-1 beta secretion. American Journal of Physiology 268, R208–R213.Google ScholarPubMed
Cannon, JG & Kluger, MJ (1983) Endogenous pyrogen activity in human plasma after exercise. Science 220, 617–619.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon, JG, Meydani, SN, Fielding, RA, Fiatarone, MA, Meydani, M, Farhangmehr, M, Orencole, SF, Blumberg, JB & Evans, WJ (1991) Acute phase response in exercise. II. Associations between vitamin E, cytokines, and muscle proteolysis. American Journal of Physiology 260, R1235–R1240.Google ScholarPubMed
Cannon, JG, Orencole, SF, Fielding, RA, Meydani, M, Meydani, SN, Fiatarone, MA, Blumberg, JB & Evans, WJ (1990) Acute phase response in exercise: interaction of age and vitamin E on neutrophils and muscle enzyme release. American Journal of Physiology 259, R1214–R1219.Google ScholarPubMed
Castell, LM, Poortmans, JR & Newsholme, EA (1996) Does glutamine have a role in reducing infections in athletes? European Journal of Applied Physiology 73, 488–490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Catania, A, Airagi, L, Motta, P, Manfredi, MG, Annoni, G, Pettenati, C, Brambilla, F & Lipton, JM (1997) Cytokine antagonists in aged subjects and their relation with cellular immunity. Journal of Gerontology 52A, B93–B97.Google Scholar
Chandra, RK (1989) Nutritional regulation of immunity and risk of infection in old age. Immunology 67, 141–147.Google Scholar
Crist, DM, Mackinnon, LT, Thompson, RF, Atterbom, HA & Egan, PA (1989) Physical exercise increases natural cellular-mediated tumor cytotoxity in elderly women. Gerontology 35, 66–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, KJA, Packer, L & Brooks, GA (1982) Free radicals and tissue produced by exercise. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 107, 1198–1205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Effros, RB, Allsopp, R, Chiu, CP, Hausner, MA, Hirji, K, Wang, L, Harley, CB, Villeponteau, B, West, MD & Giorgi, JV (1996) Shortened telomeres in the expanded CD28-CD8+ cell subset in HIV disease implicate replicative senescence in HIV pathogenesis. AIDS 10, F17–F22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ennist, DL, Jones, KH & St Pierre, RL (1986) Functional analysis of the immunosenescence of the human B cell system: Dissociation of normal activation and proliferation from impaired terminal differentiation into IgM immunoglobulin-secreting cells. Journal of Immunology 136, 99–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ershler, WB, Sun, WH, Binkley, N, Gravenstein, S, Volk, MJ, Kamoske, G, Klopp, RG, Roecker, EB, Daynes, RA & Weindruch, R (1993) Interleukin-6 and aging: blood levels and mononuclear cell production increase with advancing age and in vitro production is modifiable by dietary restriction. Lymphokine Cytokine Research 12, 225–230.Google Scholar
Essen, P, Wernerman, J, Sonnenfeld, T, Thunell, S & Vinnars, E (1992) Free amino acids in plasma and muscle during 24 hours post-operatively - a descriptive study. Clinical Physiology 12, 163–177.Google Scholar
Evans, WJ, Meredith, CN, Cannon, JG, Dinarello, CA, Frontera, WR, Hughes, VA, Jones, BH & Knuttgen, HG (1986) Metabolic changes following eccentric exercise in trained and untrained men. Journal of Applied Physiology 61, 1864–1868.Google Scholar
Facchini, A, Mariani, E, Mariani, AR, Papa, S, Vitale, M & Manzoli, FA (1987) Increased number of circulating Leu 11+ (CD16) large granular lymphocytes and decreased NK activity during human ageing. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 68, 340–347.Google Scholar
Fagiolo, U, Cossarizza, A, Santacaterina, S, Ortolani, C, Monti, D, Paganelli, R & Franceschi, C (1992) Increased cytokine production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells from healthy elderly people. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 663, 490–493.Google Scholar
Ferguson, FG, Wikby, A, Maxson, P, Olsson, J & Johansson, B (1995) Immune parameters in a longitudinal study of a very old population of Swedish people: a comparison between survivors and nonsurvivors. Journal of Gerontology 50A, B378–B382.Google Scholar
Fiatarone, MA, Morley, JE, Bloom, ET, Benton, D, Solomon, GF & Makinodan, T (1989) The effect of exercise on natural killer cell activity in young and old subjects. Journal of Gerontology 44, M37–M45.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, L (1988) Exercise and the immune system. Immunology Today 9, 337–339.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, L (1991) Overtraining increases the susceptibility to infection. International Journal of Sports Medicine 12, S5–S8.Google Scholar
Gabriel, H, Schmitt, B, Urhausen, A & Kindermann, W (1993) Increased CD45RA+. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 25, 1352–1357.Google Scholar
Hack, V, Strobel, G, Weiss, M & Weicker, H (1994) PMN cell counts and phagocytic activity of highly trained athletes depend on training period. Journal of Applied Physiology 77, 1731–1735.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hager, K, Machein, U, Krieger, S, Platt, D, Seefreind, G & Bauer, J (1994) Interleukin 6 and selected plasma proteins in healthy persons of different ages. Neurobiology of Aging 15, 771–772.Google Scholar
Hakim, FT, Cepeda, R, Kaimei, S, Mackall, CL, Mcatee, N, Zujewski, J, Cowan, K & Gress, RE (1997) Constraints on CD4 recovery postchemotherapy in adults: thymic insufficiency and spoptotic decline of expanded peripheral CD4 cells. Blood 90, 3789–3798.Google Scholar
Hemila, H (1992) Vitamin C and the common cold. British Journal of Nutrition 67, 3–16.Google Scholar
Hemila, H (1996) Vitamin C and the common cold incidence: A review of studies with subjects under heavy physical stress. International Journal of Sports Medicine 17, 379–383.Google Scholar
Hobbs, MV, Weigle, WO, Noonan, DJ, Torbett, BE, McEvilly, RJ, Koch, RJ, Cardenas, GJ & Ernst, DN (1993) Patterns of cytokine gene expression by CD4+ T cells from young and old mice. Journal of Immunology 150, 3602–3614.Google Scholar
Hoffkes, HG, Schmidtke, G, Uppenkamp, M & Schmucker, U (1996) Multiparametric immunophenotyping of B cells in peripheral blood of healthy adults by flow cytometry. Clinical and Diagnostic Immunology Laboratory 3, 30–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoffman-Goetz, L & Pedersen, BK (1994 a) Exercise and the immune system: a model of the stress response? Immunology Today 15, 382–387.Google Scholar
Hoffman-Goetz, L & Pedersen, BK (1994 b) Exercise and the immune system: a model of the stress response? Immunology Today 15, 382–387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, K, Premchand, N, Skibinska, A, Skibinski, G, Nicol, M & Mason, JI (1997) IL-6, DHEA and the ageing process. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development 93, 15–24.Google Scholar
Johnson, JA III, Griswold, JA & Muakkassa, FF (1993) Essential fatty acids influence survival in sepsis. Journal of Trauma 35, 128–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kania, DM, Binkley, N, Checovich, M, Havighurst, T, Schilling, M & Ershler, WB (1995) Elevated plasma levels of interleukin-6 in postmenopausal women do not correlate with bone density. Journal of the Geriatrics Society 43, 236–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kappel, M, Stadeager, C, Tvede, N, Galbo, H & Pedersen, BK (1991) Effects of in vivo hyperthermia on natural killer cell activity, in vitro proliferative responses and blood mononuclear cell subpopulations. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 84, 175–180.Google Scholar
Kasama, TK, Kobayashi, T, Fukushima, M, Tabata, M, Ohno, I, Negishi, M, Ide, H, Takahashi, T & Niwa, Y (1989) Production of interleukin 1-like factor from human peripheral blood monocytes and polymorphonuclear leukocytes by superoxide anion: the role of interleukin 1 and reactive oxygen species in inflamed sites. Clinical Immunology and Immunopathology 53, 439–448.Google Scholar
Keast, D, Arstein, D, Harper, W, Fry, RW & Morton, AR (1995) Depression of plasma glutamine concentration after exercise stress and its possible influence on the immune system. Medical Journal of Australia 162, 15–18.Google Scholar
Kelleher, AD, Carr, A, Zaunders, J & Cooper, DA (1996) Alterations in the immune response to human immunodeficiency (HIV)-infected subjects treated with an HIV-specific protease inhibitor, ritonavir. Journal of Infectious Diseases 173, 321–329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klokker, M, Kjaer, M, Secher, NH, Hanel, B, Worm, L, Kappel, M & Pedersen, BK (1995) Natural killer cell response to exercise in humans: effect of hypoxia and epidural anesthesia. Journal of Applied Physiology 78, 709–716.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krishnaraj, R & Blandford, G (1987) Age-associated alterations in human natural killer cells. 1. Increased activity as per conventional and kinetic analysis. Clinical Immunology and Immunopathology 45, 268–285.Google Scholar
Krishnaraj, R & Blandford, G (1988) Age-associated alterations in human natural killer cells. Cell Immunology 114, 137–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lehmann, M, Huonker, M, Dimeo, F, Heinz, N, Gastmann, U, Treis, N, Steinacker, JM, Keul, J, Kajewski, R & Haussinger, D (1995) Serum amino acid concentrations in nine athletes before and after the 1993 Colmar ultra triathlon. International Journal of Sports Medicine 16, 155–159.Google Scholar
Ligthart, GJ, van Volkhoven, PC, Schuit, HRE & Hijmans, W (1986) The expanded null cell compartment in ageing: increase in the number of natural killer cells and changes in T-cells and NK-cell subsets in human blood. Immunology 59, 353–357.Google Scholar
McCarthy, DA & Dale, MM (1988) The leucocytosis of exercise. A review and model. Sports Medicine 6, 333–363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mackinnon, LT & Hooper, S (1994) Mucosal (secretory) immune system responses to exercise of varying intensity and during overtraining. International Journal of Sports Medicine 15, S179–S183.Google Scholar
Mackinnon, LT & Hooper, SL (1996) Plasma glutamine and upper respiratory tract infection during intensified training in swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 28, 285–290.Google Scholar
Makinodan, T & Marguerite, MBK (1980) Age influence on the immune system. Advances in Immunology 29, 287–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mazzeo, RS (1994) The influence of exercise and aging on immune function. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 26, 586–592.Google Scholar
Mazzeo, RS (1996) Exercise, immunity, and aging. In Exercise and Immune Function, pp. 199–214 [Hoffman-Goetz, , editor]. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.Google Scholar
Miller, RA (1989) The cell biology of aging: immunological models. Journal of Gerontology 44, B4–B8.Google Scholar
Miller, RA (1996) The aging immune system: primer and prospectus. Science 273, 70–74.Google Scholar
Mooradian, AD, Reed, RL, Osterweil, D, Clements, N & Scuderi, P (1990) Lack of an association between the presence of tumor necrosis factor or interleukin-1 alpha in the blood and weight loss among elderly patients. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 38, 397–401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murasko, DM, Nelson, BJ, Silver, R, Matour, D & Kay, D (1986) Immunologic response in an elderly population with a mean age of 85. American Journal of Medicine 81, 612–618.Google Scholar
Nash, HL (1987) Can exercise make us immune to disease? Physics and Sports Medicine 1, 250–253.Google Scholar
Nasrullah, I & Mazzeo, RS (1992) Age-related immuno senescence in Fischer 344 rats: influence of exercise training. Journal of Applied Physiology 73, 1932–1938.Google Scholar
Nehlsen-Canarella, SL, Fagoaga, OR & Nieman, DC (1997) Carbohydrate and the cytokine response to 2.5 hours of running. Journal of Applied Physiology 82, 1662–1667.Google Scholar
Newsholme, EA (1990) Psychoimmunology and cellular nutrition: an alternative hypothesis. Biological Psychiatry 27, 1–3.Google Scholar
Newsholme, EA (1994) Biochemical mechanisms to explain immunosuppression in well-trained and overtrained athletes. International Journal of Sports Medicine 15, S142–S147.Google Scholar
Newsholme, EA & Parry, Billings M (1990) Properties of glutamine release from muscle and its importance for the immune system. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 14, 63S–67S.Google Scholar
Nielsen, HB & Pedersen, BK (1997) Lymphocyte proliferation in response to exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology 75, 375–379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nielsen, HB, Secher, NH, Kappel, M & Pedersen, BK (1998) N-acetylcysteine does not affect the lymphocyte proliferation and natural killer cell activity response to exercise. American Journal of Physiology 275, R1227–R1231.Google ScholarPubMed
Nieman, DC (1994 a) Exercise, infection, and immunity. International Journal of Sports Medicine 15, Suppl. 3, S131–S141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nieman, DC (1994 b) Exercise, upper respiratory tract infection, and the immune system. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 26, 128–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nieman, DC (1996) Prolonged aerobic exercise, immune response, and risk of infection. In Exercise and Immune Function, pp. 143–162 [Hoffman-Goetz, L, editor]. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.Google Scholar
Nieman, DC, Buckley, KS, Henson, DA, Warren, BJ, Suttles, J, Ahle, JC, Simandle, S, Fagoaga, OR & Nehlsen-Canarella, SL (1995) Immune function in marathon runners versus sedentary controls. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 27, 986–992.Google Scholar
Nieman, DC, Fagoaga, OR, Butterworth, DE, Warren, BJ, Utter, A, Davis, JM, Henson, DA & Nehlsen-Canarella, SL (1997 a) Carbohydrate supplementation affects blood granulocyte and monocyte trafficking but not function after 2.5 hours of running. Journal of Applied Physiology 82, 1385–1394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nieman, DC, Henson, DA, Butterworth, DE, Warren, BJ, Davis, JM, Fagoaga, OR & Nehlsen-Canarella, SL (1997 b) Vitamin C supplementation does not alter the immune response to 2.5 hours of running. International Journal of Sports Nutrition 7, 173–184.Google Scholar
Nieman, DC, Henson, DA, Garner, EB, Butterworth, DE, Warren, BJ, Utter, A, Davis, JM, Fagoaga, OR & Nehlsen-Canarella, SL (1997 c) Carbohydrate affects natural killer cell redistribution but not activity after running. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 29, 1318–1324.Google Scholar
Nieman, DC, Henson, DA, Gusewitch, G, Warren, BJ, Dotson, RC, Butterworth, DE & Nehlsen-Canarella, SL (1993) Physical activity and immune function in elderly women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 25, 823–831.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nieman, DC & Pedersen, BK (1998) Exercise and immune function: recent development. Sports Medicine 27, 73–80.Google Scholar
Northoff, H & Berg, A (1991) Immunologic mediators as parameters of the reaction to strenuous exercise. International Journal of Sports Medicine 12, S9–S15.Google Scholar
Ostrowski, K, Hermann, C, Bangash, A, Schjerling, P, Nielsen, JN & Pedersen, BK (1998 a) A trauma-like elevation in plasma cytokines in humans in response to treadmill running. Journal of Physiology 508, 949–953.Google Scholar
Ostrowski, K, Rohde, T, Asp, S, Schjerling, P & Pedersen, BK (1998 b) The cytokine balance and strenuous exercise: TNF-alpha, IL-2beta, IL-6, IL-1ra, sTNF-r1, sTNF-r2, and IL-10. Journal of Physiology 515, 287–291.Google Scholar
Ostrowski, K, Rohde, T, Zacho, M, Asp, S & Pedersen, BK (1998 c) Evidence that IL-6 is produced in skeletal muscle during intense long-term muscle activity. Journal of Physiology 508, 949–953.Google Scholar
Paganelli, R, Quinti, I, Fagiolo, U, Cossarizza, A, Ortolani, C, Guerra, E, Sansoni, P, Pucillo, LP, Scala, E & Cozzi, E (1992) Changes in circulating B cells and immunoglobulin classes and subclasses in a healthy aged population. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 90, 351–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parry, Billings M, Budgett, R, Koutedakis, Y, Blomstrand, E, Brooks, S, Williams, C, Calder, PC, Pilling, S, Baigrie, R & Newsholme, EA (1992) Plasma amino acid concentrations in the overtraining syndrome: possible effects on the immune system. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 24, 1353–1358.Google Scholar
Pauling, L (1971) The significance of the evidence about ascorbic acid and the common cold. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 68, 2678–2681.Google Scholar
Pedersen, BK (editor) (1997) In Exercise Immunology, pp. 1–206. Austin, TX: RG Landes.Google Scholar
Pedersen, BK, Bruunsgaard, H, Klokker, M, Kappel, M, MacLean, DA, Nielsen, HB, Rohde, T, Ullum, H & Zacho, M (1997) Exercise-induced immunomodulation - possible roles of neuroendocrine factors and metabolic factors. International Journal of Sports Medicine 18, S2–S7.Google Scholar
Pedersen, BK, Tvede, N, Christensen, LD, Klarlund, K, Kragbak, S & Halkjr, Kristensen J (1989) Natural killer cell activity in peripheral blood of highly trained and untrained persons. International Journal of Sports Medicine 10, 129–131.Google Scholar
Pedersen, BK, Tvede, N, Klarlund, K, Christensen, LD, Hansen, FR, Galbo, H, Kharazmi, A & Halkjaer, Kristensen J (1990) Indomethacin in vitro and in vivo abolishes post-exercise suppression of natural killer cell activity in peripheral blood. International Journal of Sports Medicine 11, 127–131.Google Scholar
Peters, EM, Cambell, A & Pawley, L (1992) Vitamin A fails to increase resistance to upper respiratory tract infections in distance runners. South African Journal of Sports Medicine 7, 3–7.Google Scholar
Peters, EM, Goetzsche, JM, Grobbelaar, B & Noakes, TD (1993) Vitamin C supplementation reduces the incidence of postrace symptoms of upper-respiratory-tract infection in ultramarathon runners. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 57, 170–174.Google Scholar
Peterson, PK, Chao, CC, Carson, P, Hu, S, Nichol, K & Janoff, EN (1994) Levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 6, interleukin 10, and transforming growth factor beta are normal in the serum of the healthy elderly. Clinical and Infectious Diseases 19, 1158–1159.Google Scholar
Pyne, DB, Baker, MS, Fricker, PA, McDonald, WA, Telford, RD & Weidemann, MJ (1995) Effects of an intensive 12-wk training program by elite swimmers on neutrophil oxidative activity. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 27, 536–542.Google Scholar
Rall, LC, Roubenoff, R, Cannon, JG, Abad, LW, Dinarello, CA & Meydani, SN (1996) Effects of progressive resistance training on immune response in aging and chronic inflammation. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 28, 1356–1365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rincon, HG, Solomon, GF, Benton, D & Rubenstein, LZ (1996) Exercise in frail elderly men decreases natural killer cell activity. Aging 8, 109–112.Google Scholar
Rohde, T, Asp, S, MacLean, DA & Pedersen, BK (1998 a) Competitive sustained exercise in humans, lymphokine activated killer cell activity, and glutamine - an intervention study. European Journal of Applied Physiology 78, 448–453.Google Scholar
Rohde, T, MacLean, DA & Pedersen, BK (1996) Glutamine, lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine production. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology 44, 648–650.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rohde, T, MacLean, D & Pedersen, BK (1998 b) Effect of glutamine on changes in the immune system induced by repeated exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 30, 856–862.Google Scholar
Rohde, T, MacLean, DA, Richter, EA, Kiens, B & Pedersen, BK (1997) Prolonged submaximal eccentric exercise is associated with increased levels of plasma IL-6. American Journal of Physiology 273, E85–E91.Google Scholar
Rohde, T, Ullum, H, Palmo, J, Halkjaer, Kristensen J, Newsholme, EA & Pedersen, BK (1995) Effects of glutamine on the immune system-influence of muscular exercise and HIV infection. Journal of Applied Physiology 79, 146–150.Google Scholar
Sansoni, P, Cossarizza, A, Brianti, V, Fagnoni, F, Snelli, G, Monti, D, Marcato, A, Passeri, G, Ortolani, C & Forti, E (1993) Lymphocyte subsets and natural killer cell activity in healthy old people and centenarians. Blood 82, 2767–2773.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saxena, RK, Saxena, QB & Alder, WH (1984) Interleukin-2-induced activation of natural killer cell activity in spleen cells from old and young mice. Immunology 51, 719–726.Google Scholar
Shinkai, S, Konishi, M & Shephard, RJ (1996) Aging, exercise, training and the immune system. Exercise and Immunology Reviews 3, 68–95.Google Scholar
Sprenger, H, Jacobs, C, Nain, M, Gressner, AM, Prinz, H, Wesemann, W & Gemsa, D (1992) Enhanced release of cytokines, interleukin-2 receptors, and neopterin after long-distance running. Clinical Immunology and Immunopathology 63, 188–195.Google Scholar
Tvede, N, Heilmann, C, Halkjaer, Kristensen J & Pedersen, BK (1989) Mechanisms of B-lymphocyte suppression induced by acute physical exercise. Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Immunology 30, 169–173.Google Scholar
Tvede, N, Steensberg, J, Baslund, B, Halkjaer, Kristensen J & Pedersen, BK (1991) Cellular immunity in highly trained elite racing cyclists during periods of training with high and low intensity. Scandinarian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports 1, 163–166.Google Scholar
Ullum, H, Haahr, PM, Diamant, M, Palmo, J, Halkjaer, Kristensen J & Pedersen, BK (1994) Bicycle exercise enhances plasma IL-6 but does not change IL-1, IL-1, IL-6, or TNF- pre-mRNA in BMNC. Journal of Applied Physiology 77, 93–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Utsuyama, M, Hirokawa, K, Kurashima, C, Fukayama, M, Inamatsu, T, Suzuki, K, Hashimoto, W & Sato, K (1992) Differential age-change in the numbers of CD4+CD45RA+ and CD4+CD29+ T cell subsets in human peripheral blood. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development 63, 57–68.Google Scholar
Wei, J, Xu, H, Davies, JL & Hemmings, GP (1992) Increase of plasma IL-6 concentration with age in healthy subjects. Life Sciences 51, 1953–1956.Google Scholar
Weindruch, R, Devens, BH & Raff, HV (1983) Influence of dietary restriction and ageing on natural killer cell activity in mice. Journal of Immunology 130, 993–996.Google Scholar
Xu, X, Beckman, I, Ahern, M & Bradley, J (1993) A comprehensive analysis of peripheral blood lymphocytes in healthy aged humans by flow cytometry. Immunology and Cell Biology 71, 549–557.Google Scholar